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このページでは、ランドール師が、沖縄国際大学に在任中、大学の紀要に発表した論文を掲載いたします。
ランドール牧師(W.T.Randall)は1933年アメリカのジョージア州生まれ。ジョージア工科大学卒業とほぼ同時期に海兵隊に勤務。しかし年来の課題であったガンディー・キングの非暴力主義を確信し、1960年南部バプテスト神学校大学院に入学。その後1966年アメリカ・バプテスト海外伝道協会の宣教師となって活動。1968年からは沖縄での宣教活動に従事された。しかしその後、沖縄にある米軍人の多い教会からの圧力によって、1979年宣教師職の解任に追い込まれた。当時、沖縄バプテスト連盟に所属する教会はこの問題をめぐって紛糾し、ランドール牧師を協力牧師に迎えていたわたしたちの普天間教会は、連盟からの「除名」という瀬戸際に立たされたこともある。解任後は沖縄国際大学に迎えられ、2001年まで大学人としても活躍された。
The following six papers while the Randle pastor is in office in Okinawa International University, It is what was announced.
Randall pastor (W. T.Randall) was born in State of American Georgia in 1933.While he graduated from Georgia Institute of Technology, he joined the Marine Corps.
However, he was sure of the nonviolent principle of Gandhi and M.L.King who was years of subject after that, and the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary graduate school was entered in 1960. He became the missionary of the American Baptist Foreign Missionary Society after that. ,From 1968, worked in Okinawa.
However, he was driven into dismissal of a missionary job after that in 1979 by the pressure from a church with much U.S. Forces people in Okinawa. Those days, many churches which belongs to the Okinawa Baptist Convention got entangled involving this problem.Since our church had made the Randall pastor the cooperation pastor, it became that it is likely to be dismissed from O.B.C. After dismissal, Randall pastor was greeted in Okinawa International University and worked there till 2001.
これから掲載する6つの論文は次のとおりです。発表時の早い順に掲示しておきますが、掲載の順序は異なります。なお掲載は、各論文ごとに初めにオリジナルの英文を、そのあとに翻訳を掲載します。
Six carried papers are as follows. Although notified in order of an announcement, the order of printing differs. The Japanese translation continues after English with any original paper.
1 ガンディーの今日的意義 Gandhi's Continuing Relevance 1984年 キリスト教短期大学紀要13号
2 白人・黒人文化と南部キリスト教(アメリカ合衆国における黒人および白人のキリスト教に関する比較文化的考察)A Comparative Culture Study of Black and White Christianity in the South 1991年 沖縄国際大 学紀要第14巻
3 ニューヨークにおけるプエルトリコ人とクリストファー・コロンブスの500年の遺産
Nuyoricans and the 500-Year Legacy of Christopher Columbus
1992年 沖縄国際大学紀要第14巻
4 ピリ・トーマスの自伝的作品についての序論:ニューヨークにおけるプエルトリコ人第2世代初の主要作家ピリ・トーマス Introduction to the Autobiographical Works of Piri Thomas:First Major Writer among Second Generation Nuyoricans 1992年 沖縄国際大学紀要第14巻
5 マーティン・ルーサー・キング・ジュニア:今後の課題 Martin Luther King,Jr.,The Unfinished Agenda1999年沖縄国際大学紀要3巻
6 ガンディーは民族的偏見の持ち主だったか-屈辱的体験と覚醒- Gandhi and Black South Africans .Was Gandhi a Racist? 2003年 沖縄国際大学紀要6巻
Gandhi's Continuing Relevance
"Love your enemy. Resist not evil. Every one Who hears these Words and does them will be like a wise man who built his house on a rock."--From the Sermon the Mount.
W. T. Randall
ABSTRACT
Mohandas K. Gandhi's life (1869-1948) was an active, outstanding embodiment of Jesus' teaching in the Sermon on the Mount (found in chapters five through seven of the Gospel According to Matthew in the New Testament), so his relevance will continue and his challenge to Christianity will be great. The present paper attempts to identify and examine briefly the major areas of that challenge for present-day Christianity. Contemporary Christians, either by relegating the teaching of the Sermon on the Mount to the monastic life, or by setting it aside as "spiritual", or else by simply dismissing it as "impractical" for the "real" world, often fail to accept this teaching of Jesus as truth for life and action. In contrast to that treatment, Gandhi's acceptance of the teaching of the Sermon as truth, his integration of that truth with his Hindu faith, and his faithfulness to it throughout all his life and work, all challenge modern Christianity's serious lack in this regard. Gandhi's work for the civil rights of Indian citizens in South Africa, and his work for India's independence from colonial rule'were carried out on three main principles: 1) satyagraha, truth force which refuses to do violence, 2) incarnation of truth in a life of voluntary poverty, self-denial and identification with the longing aspirations for freedom, justice and peace in the songs of the poor, and 3) ahimsa, a life style that consciously shuns destruction of life in any form. His life thus stands as a challenge to the church for it frequently has been unresponsive to the oppressed and it has often been slow or unwilling to challenge the oppressor. Indeed, rather in seeking to gain power, wealth, or secular approval - in becoming the "religion of kings" - the church has tenced to become the oppressor and thereby to forfeit its true status as the church. The corrective for this tendency for material strength and ethical weakness is for the church to heed the voices and signs that lead back to the New Testament and renewal. Gandhi's is such a voice and his life is such a sign. The perils of the nuclear age call for the church to return to its true self and to be the light of the world in this dark age.
Gandhi Encounters the Sermon on the Mount.
M. K. Gandhi was a native of Gujurat, a member of the high caste yaishya tribe. His father and uncles were prominent lawyers and politicians. Western influence was relatively weak in that part of India but as a young man Gandhi was drawn to the West. At the age of eighteen he went to London to study law. He excelled in his studies and at age 22, upon university graduation and the successful completion of the qualifying examinations, he was admitted to the British bar. While in London he read the New Testament' for the first time. He came upon the Sermon on the Mount and the result was electrifying. The words of the Sermon became the norm for his life. The truth he found there was his moral dynamic during the more than twenty years he spent working for the civil rights of Indians in South Africa, and during the subsequent three decades of struggle for Indian independence from British colonial rule.
In his autobiography, Mohandas K. Gandhi, An Autobiography, The Story ofMy Experiments wlth Truth, he tells of his Bible reading:
"I began reading (the Bible), but I could not possibly read through the Old Testament. I read the book of Genesis, and the chapters that followed invariably sent me to sleep. But just for the sake of being able to say that I had read it, I plodded through the other books with much difficulty and without the least interest or understanding. I disliked reading the book of Numbers. But the New Testament produced a different impression, especially the Sermon on the Mount which went straight to my heart. I compared it with the Gita. The verses, 'But I say unto you, that ye resist not evil: but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also. And if any man take away thy coat let him have thy cloke too,' delighted me beyond measure. . . My young mind tried to unify the teaching of the Gita, The Light ofAsia and the Sermon on the Mount. That renunciation was the highest form of religion appealed to me greatly . " 1Thus the encounter with Christian scripture awoke in young Gandhi the power and the truth of his own religious heritage. fn his mind and in his life he unified the words of Jesus with the words of the Hindu scriptures:
"For a bowl of water give a goodly meal;
For a kindly greeting bow thou down with zeal;
For a single penny pay thou back with gold;
If thy life be rescued, life do not withhold.
Thus the words and actions of the wise regard;
Every little service tenfold they reward.
But the truly noble know all men as one,
And return with gladness good for evil done "2
The Sermon on the Mount as Truth.
1. Three popular views.
How does Gandhi's life challenge modern Christianity? In order to answer that question it is necessary to point out three views of the Sermon on the Mount that enjoy wide acceptance in the community of Christ today. Gandhi's life calls each of these views into very serious question. In summarizing these views I have leaned heavily on the excellent treatise by Hans Windisch, The Meaning of the Sermon on the Mount3. For the sake of ease of understanding I have chosen terms that are sometimes different from those in his treatise, but which hopefully capture the essence of his conclusions. The three views of the Sermon on the Mount which are herein called into question are the monastic view, the spiritual view, and the realistic view.
In substance, the monastic view holds that the ethical demands of the Sermon on the Mount are impossible for the "general run of men", and only a very few "special persons" can fullfill the demands. Accordingly a system of merit is maintained for those "special persons".
The spiritual view is held by interpreters who insist that the ethical demands of the Sermon are an impossible ideal. The recognition of that impossibility awakens the need for salvation in the heart of the individual. In this view, the Sermon's only work is that of a schoolmaster bringing persons to repentance. The impossibility of attaining its ethical demands disqualifies it as a way of life.
According to the practical view of the Sermon on the Mount, the ideals expressed in the teachings are indeed wonderful words but have no practical application in the real world. Since these teachings are impractical for persons living in the real world they are not binding.
2. Gandhi's view.
In contrast to these most commonly held contemporary views of the Sermon on the Mount, Gandhi simply looked upon the teachings of Jesus as truth. The truth he found there inspired and i undergirded something unprecedented in known human history. That was the liberation, through actions based on non-violent principles, of an entire sub-continent of people from colonial bondage. In short, the man Gandhi and his life challenge the Christians of our time to regard the teachings of our Lord as truth; truth for life and truth for action.
Incarnation of Truth.
1. The Sermon on the Mount and the Gita.
Gandhi's life was, without dispute, profoundly built on the New Testament teaching of Jesus. Yet he regularly articulated his faith in Hindu categories. This is very important for Asian churches to consider.
Gandhi often heard the reading of Hindu scripture in his childhood and youth. He notes with shame4 that he never read them for himself until his dramatic encounter with the New Testament while a student is London. Later in life in 1925, he wrote in Young India: "When doubts haunt me, when disappointments stare me in the face, and I see not one ray of hope on the horizon, I turn to the Bhagavad-Gita, and find a verse to comfort me; and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of ; overwhelming sorrow "5 Mahadev Desai, the Mahatma's long-time secretary, testifies that "every moment of Gandhi's life is a conscious effort to live the message of the Gita "6 In other words, Gandhi's life is a powerfully authentic example of incarnation. He accepted and lived the truth of the teaching of Jesus, not as an imitation or copy of western Christianity, but as a faithful indianization.
2. The finer work of the gospel.
Perhaps many persons inside the church and outside of it alike have considered proselyting to be the primary work of the gospel in Asia. It is possible, however, to discern a finer work in the impact of the New Testament on Gandhi: the work of challenging the dehumanizing or death-dealing elements and promoting the humanizing or life-giving elements in the existing traditions of Asia. The church's vision needs to be expanded to include this finer work and to give it continuous promotion and study.
3. Truth incarnated in society.
The Mahatma was from beginning to end a seeker after truth. He even gave his autobiography a title including the words "experiments with truth." The truth he found, including that of Christian scripture, was lived out - incarnated - in Hindu categories of speech and in Hindu manner of life. His categories and manners were always active. They always confronted the Indian social and political situation. Toward the end of his life he wrote these words in The Harijin which appeared just days prior to his assassination. "The quest (for truth) can not be prosecute.d in a cave. Silence makes no sense where it is necessary to speak. One may live in a cave in certain circumstances, but the common man can be tested only in society."7 This shows Gandhi's ever deepening acceptance of himself and of India itself. In the closing chapter of his "Autobiography", written in 1 929 , he stated :
"To see the universal and all-pervading Spirit of Truth face to face one must be able to love the meanest of creatures as ones~lf. And a man who aspires after that cannot afford to keep out of any field of life. That is why my devotion to Truth has drawn me into the field of politics; and I can say without the slightest hesitation and yet in all humility, that those who say that religion has nothing to do with politics do not know what religion means. Identification with everything that lives is impossible without self-purification... God can never be realized by one who is not pure of heart. Self-puriflcatron therefore must mean purification in all the walks of life. And purification being highly infectious, purification of oneself necessarily leads to the purification of one's surroundings "8
4. Society is susceptable to change.
Society, then, is not a given entity to which one must always adjust in order to avoid standing out. Where truth is incarnated, a person and his society are subject to change, even purification; and the mechanism that brings this about is living the truth in the life of the often difficult society where one is found. Gandhi was the consummate Indian,-but he changed the course of history in India and in the Bntish Empire by firmly being faithful to truth in his own society.
Satyagraha.
1. Faithfulness and social conflict.
Faithfulness to truth almost inevitably brings conflict between a person who firmly seeks to live by truth and the power structures of society. In such a case faithfulness, even by a minority, becomes the instrument of change and liberation. It was in just such a conflict situation that the now famous satyagraha was formulated. On August 22, 1906 the Transvaal Government Gazatte published the text of a new British law which was directed at the Indian population of South Africa and was particularily detestable in its content. The new law required all Indians above the age of eight to register, be fingerprinted (a procedure otherwise applicable only to criminals), and to carry a registration card at all times Failure to comply was punishable by fine, imprisonment or banishment. All Indians were subject, under this law, to summary search of their persons or domiciles by British police or officials. The Muslims were outraged by this latter provision for to them the domicile is inviolate, and the person of a woman was private without exception.
2. Faithfulness and victory.
Three thousand Indians filled the Imperial Theatre of Johannesburg on September 11 to discuss measures of resistance. No one was prepared to comply with the new law and many were openly saying they were prepared to kill in resistance. Gandhi assured them that he was prepared to die rather than comply, but that for "no cause" was he "prepared to kill." He led them in a solemn oath with God as witness that they would not comply with this "Black Law" formulated by a government which had "taken leave of all sense of decency." Every person took the pledge that on pain of jail or even death they would be faithful to the oath. Gandhi reminded them that it would be a long struggle but boldly promised, "I can boldly declare and with certainty that so long as there is even a handful of men true to their pledge, there can be only one end to the struggle - and that is victory."9
3. Thoreau and jail.
The promised victory indeed came but before it proceeded the promised beatings, indignities, and jailings. Gandhi suffered all of these with the rest, indeed he was the first to be beaten and the second to be jailed in this action. While he was in jail for the second time during this action he became acquainted with Thoreau's essay, Civil Disobedience. The similarities of language and spirit between Thoreau's essay and Gandhi's speech at the Imperial Theater a few months before are striking indeed. More than half a century before Gandhi began his campaign of non-compliance Thoreau had gone to jail for refusing to pay taxes to a state that legalized slavery and promoted war against the Mexicans. Subsequently he had written:
"I know this well, that if one thousand, if one hundred, if ten men whom I could name - if ten honest men only - ay, if one HONEST man, in this state of ~4assachusetts, ceasing to hold slaves, were actually to withdraw from this copartnership, and be locked up in the county jail therefor, it would be the abolition of slavery in America. For it matters not how small the beginning may seem to be: what is once well done is done forever."10
4. The formulation.
Gandhi used his times in jail to read, pray and think about the movement that had begun. He tried to find a name for its central principle and at first called it "passive resistance."Then he soon changed it to satyagraha, "truth force", a power that does not depend on numbers but on firmness. The sanskrit satya is from the root sat, meaning "truth." Graha is the Sanskrit word for "firm." Gandhi discussed
GANDHI AND BLACK SOUTH AFRICANS:Was Gandhi a Racist?
Introduction
Mohandas Gandhi: In an age of empire and military
might, he proved that the powerless had power and
that the force of arms would not forever prevail
against the force of the spirit.
Thus wrote Johanna McGeary as the opening line of her essay on Gandhi in Time Magazine's Person of the Century issue.aFollowing that, McGeary lamented the tendency of some persons to use the man to tear down the hero. "
The Mahatma, the Great Soul, endures in the best part of our minds, where our ideals are kept: the embodiment of human rights and the creed of nonviolence. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi is something else, an eccentric of contradictory and exhausting character most of us hardly know. It is fashionable in this fin de slecleb to use the man to tear down the hero, to expose human pathologies at the expense of larger-than-life achievements.1
The present essay will deal with a specific aspect of that unfortunate tendency: namely, the suggestion that the South African Gandhi was a racist.
The suggestion that Gandhi felt that his own race was superior to the indigenous South African race is not of recent origin. In the 1950s and 1960s, during the civil rights struggles in America, advocates of white supremacy and segregated housing irequently claimed that Gandhi never worked for the general civil rights of South Africans, pointing out that he had even publicly objected to the introduction of black Africans into a residential location in Johannesburg which had been set aside for Indian residents.
The argument that while Gandhi was in South Africa he was not an egalitarian regarding his indigenous neighbors has also been taken up by academics. A typical representation of this position appeared in 1996 in an article written by Brian M. du Toit in The Journal ofModern African Studies. Du Toit argued that during the twenty-one years Gandhi worked in South Africa, his "gradually widening circles of concern never quite succeeded in including the plight of the African."2 He asserts rather that Gandhi's work reflected the attitude of the elite Indians who were his legal clients. That attitude was "in essence an exclusive and self-serving ideology."3 According to du Toit, "Gandhi and his fellow Indians saw in the Africans only an innocent peasant.... [The Indians] fought their battles in isolation and won only moral victories."4
Du Toit wrote that the racist attitude of the Indians was "clearly illustrated by events in 1904, when the Johannesburg municipality, which had not maintained proper sanitation in the locations occupied by Indians, decided that Africans could also live there."5 Gandhi, according to du Toit, objected to this on the basis of skin color. He supported that contention with a quotation from Huttenback's Gandhi in South Africa:
Gandhi then acted more like an orthodox Gujarati Vaishya, rather than the ecumenicale galitarian for which he is remembered, by writing as follows to the authorities: "About this mixing of the Kaffirsc with the Indians I must confess I feel strongly. I think it is very unfair to the Indian population, and it is an undue tax even on the proverbial patience of my countrymen."6
It should be pointed out that both du Toit and Huttenback held the Mahatma Gandhi in high esteem. In the materials cited above, each of them was attempting to show that Gandhi subsequently matured, overcame the racist views he had held during his years in South Africa and went on to becorne the leading egalitarian of his time.
The eminence they attributed to Gandhi is beyond dispute. It should also be emphasized that the personal changes Gandhi accomplished within himself while he was living in South Africa were nothing short of revolutionary.d Moreover, as the following pages will attempt to show, any effort to find bigotry or racism in Gandhi-at any time-will fail in the face of the historical record.
aDecember 31, 1999. Gandhi shared second place with Franklin D. Roosevelt. Albert Einstein was the first-place selection.
b The literal French meaning of the phrasefin de slecle is "end of the century" but it is typically employed in English to indicate a period of decadence.
c ln 1857 the Cape Synod of the Church of South Africa (Dutch Reformed) passed a resolution which stated that black persons were excluded by God. "Kaffir," the Arabic word for "infidel," became a common deslgnation for black Africans and was often used by white South Africans with the connotation of "nigger."
dFor a detailed account of Gandhi's personal transformation while he was in South Africa, see "Victory over Self' in
the author's Social Justice through Nonviolence, et. al., 61-74.
South Africa's Polyracial Society
Gandhi lived in South Africa from 1893 until 1914. Those twenty-one years were spent in a ceaseless struggle against the racist laws under which the Indians then living in South Africa were being oppressed. Gandhi's story is only one short chapter in that country's centuries-long history of racial oppression. Accordingly, an understanding of that history is needed for a clear understanding of
Gandhi's South African experiences. That history, and Gandhi's entry into it, will be briefly described in the following paragraphs.
Pre-European South Africans
When Europeans first entered the region now known as South Africa, they encountered a wide variety of tribal kingdoms, primarily the Xhosa, Zulu, Tswana, Sotho, Pedi, Shangaan, Venda, Ndebele, San, Khoi and Griqua. Their societies had developed over centuries of adaptation to the land, climate and to each other. Accordingly, there were wide variations of culture, Ianguage and custom among them.1
European arrivals
The first known attempt made by Europeans to establish a base in the region occurred in 1497. Two Portuguese navigators, Bartolomeu Dias and Vasco da Gama had discovered the sea-route around the African cape and hoped to build a rest-haven on its southernmost point where the South Atlantic Ocean and the Indian Ocean meet. But they were turned away by the banshee winds and the contrary, circular tides they encountered. Dias and de Gama sailed away and eventually make a beach-head in Goa.
The first actual European settlement occurred in 1652, when Jan van Riebeeck established an outpost for the Dutch East India Company at the Cape of Good Hope, now known as Cape Towo. His task was two-fold: first, to provide rest and provisions for Dutch shipping en route to Asian and South Pacific ports, and second, to secure the Indian Ocean against foreign competitors.
The white settlers grew in numbers, some by new arrivals and some by expanding families through marriage. They pressed ever outward into the mountains and grasslands, carrying with them the Bible, a sense of divine election and a rustic pride in being Dutch. Time virtually stood still for them for two hundred years and they became a living museum piece for the Netherlands of the sixteenth century.
The Dutch and the "Natives"
Dutch East India Company policy regarding indigenous Africans, who were formally referred to by the Dutch as "Natives," was for settlers to have only the minimum contact necessary to barter with them for cattle. The company had no intention of colonizing or otherwise taking responsibility for the indigenous people. The settlers were even forbidden to take local Africans as slaves.
Van Riebeeck attempted to be true to Company policy regarding contact with the local Africans. He was somewhat successful; he even planted a bitter almond hedge around the Cape settlement to keep the neighboring Khoikhoi out. However, the gradual and irrepressible expansion of the technologically superior Europeans marginalized the Africans. Inter-racial contacts necessarily increased because dispossession of the Airicans rendered them dependent for survival upon employment by and trading with the Europeans.
Slaves and "Coloureds"
Even though the Dutch settlers did not enslave local Africans they did in fact consider slaves to be necessary Slaves were imported by slave traders and sold both to the East India Company and to individuals. Initially, slaves were brought to the Cape irom Madagascar, Mozambique and Angola, then subsequently from Ceylon, Malaysia and Indonesia as well. Asian slaves were generally preferred for domestic work, Africans for such heavy labor as stevedoring and field work..
In spite of strict official Dutch prohibition of conjugal relations across the racial and ethic lines hites, slaves and black Africans from each other, such unions did occur. This gave rise to separating w
people of nuxed race They were referred to m the offrcral regrsters as "Coloured "a
South Africa's social pyramid
South African society developed as a well-defined pyramid. At the apex were the rich white land owners, businessmen and East India Company officials. Next came the white farmers. The tier below the farmers was composed of the Coloureds and the slaves. The Natives, who were looked upon as savages by the Europeans, formed the bottom tier of this multi-racial, multi-ethnic society.
European Boerb society grew in South Africa in a way which favored white control But when compared to continental European and British society of the same period, it grew, in Spark's words, in a "stunted way, Iacking both an intellectual and an entrepreneurial class; it failed also to develop a working or an artisan class. What evolved was a semi-literate peasantry with the social status of a landed gentry."2 Thus, when the modernized and highly competitive British arrived in 1795, the Boers were quite unprepared either to compete or to cope with them.
The arrival of the British and rising conflicts
The British penchant for formal rule of law, backed by strict penal codes, exacerbated previously existing conflicts within the society. The paradigm strand of conflict was the one between slaves and slave owners. Slavery was undisguised exploitation which could only be maintained by brute force. Tortures such as flogging, branding, mutilation and the thumbscrew were common forms of enforcement. In extreme cases, death by breaking on the wheel, flogging, hanging or even immolation were not unknown.
The beleaguered slaves, in return, retaliated with every means at their disposal. The major form of resistance was flight. Hundreds of runaways found refuge among sympathetic African tribes, bringing to their host communities both the skills acquired during servitude and valuable knowledge of European ways.
There was also serious conflict between the arriving British and the settled Boers. The Boers had developed a social system that stressed individualism, with very few restraints from government or administrative authorities. The British set about formalizing the Cape Colony and this met with constant resistance from the Boers.
The major source of Anglo-Boer conflict was race-related. The piecemeal granting of legal rights to non-white people in the 1820s caused the Boers to become possessed by trekgee.c They were enraged when the British made it possible for an indigenous servant to lodge a complaint against his master. The situation was made worse by the lifting of the pass system for manumitted slaves.
The final stroke was the abolition of slavery in 1834. The Boers found that they could no longer bear the interfering Englishmen and their kaffirboetiedd ideas. They took their horses, oxen, wagons, families and family bibles on the historic Great Trek, departing from Graaff-Reinet and Grahamstown in the Eastern Cape Colony in 1835. At first they began settling in Natal, but pressed again by the British, as well as by savage attacks by Zulu warriors, the Voortrekkerse heroically crossed into the Transvaal and established Boer governments, first at Potchefstroom and then permanently at Pretoria.
In her famous exposition of the grievances that had driven her people to undertake the Great Trek, Anna Steenkampf gave a prominent place to what she called "the shameful and unjust proceedings with reference to the freedom of the slaves." She explained:
[It] was not so much their freedom which drove us to such lengths as their being placed on an equal footing with Christians, contrary to the laws of God and the natural distinction of race and religion, so that it was intolerable for any decent Christian to bow down beneath such a yoke; wherefore we rather withdrew in order thus to preserve our doctrines in purity3
The Zulus and the British
The Zulu nation remained intact after the Boers had passed through their country. They asserted their pride as a people, remaining unakaid of white men. This was made abundantly clear to the British, when, in the latter quarter of the nineteenth century, they set out to colonize Natal and consolidate their control over the Zulu nation.
England's famous Second Warwickshire Regiment was given the ill-fated mission of subduing the Zulu. On January 22, 1878, they were overrun by the Zulu army in the Battle of Isandhlwana. In that battle, vividly described in Morris' classic, The Washing of the Spears, more than one thousand and eight hundred British soldiers were killed and six English companies defeated. The memory of the Battle of Isandhlwana is a vital element in the lore of all black South Africans:
[They continue to cherish] the triumphs of a Napoleonic era when for a glorious moment a black nation stood as a mighty power in its own right, able to challenge the white intruder with his superior technology and .... inflict on the British army the most grievous defeat that modern troops have ever suffered at the hands of aborigines.4The following year the British returned for vengeance with overwhelming numbers. The mighty Zulu were physically subdued and Ulundi, the capital that the great warrior Shaka had established fifty years earlier, was razed. But the proud spirit of the Zulu people remained unsuppressed.
The Afrikaners
In addition to warfare with the Zulus, contacts which the Boers had with Africans during the Great Trek had another consequence of singular historic significance. Tiryakian tells of this important development:
Social contact with a subordinated people became objectionable to the white settlers....The Cape Synod [of the Ch rch of South Africa] in 1857 passed a resolution segregating white and non-white congregations. The Calvinist doctrines of predestination and the community of the elect were drawn upon to assert that the Negro was excluded by God. He was not among the elect. They associated Negroes with the sons of Ham....After the defeat of the Boers by the British, the church became the bastion of Boer culture.5
The Boers thankfully accepted the Transvaal as God's 'promised' Iand. Accordingly, they set about inhabiting it as a 'New Jerusalem.' Meanwhile, they began identifying themselves as Afrikaners. Their language was the pidgin Dutch, Afrikaans, which became an official language in 1925. The entire culture reflected a distinctly Dutch-biblical foundation.
Diamonds and gold: Johannesburg
The British recoguized the Transvaal's independence at the Sand River Convention of 1852. But it was a short-lived respite for the Afrikaners. After the discovery of diamonds at Kimberley in 1867 and gold at Pilgrims Rest in 1873, Britain broke the Sand River Treaty and annexed the Transvaal as British colonial territory in 1877.
The hardy Boers, refusing to accept the annexation of the Transvaal by Britain, considered a spirited defense of their 'promised' Iand to be nothing less than a sacred obligation. They won the First War for Independence of 1880-1881. The British, who had expected to win handily, were amazed by the determined defense mounted by the Boers.
However, in the Second Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902 the British mounted an overwhelming force. It was barbarous, total warfare, waged not only against the Boer soldiers, but against their wives, children and servants as well. Some twenty-seven thousand Boers and twenty thousand Africans died as prisoners of war after the British razed Boer farms and rounded up Afrikaner women, children and indigenous farm workers and imprisoned them in disease-infested internment camps. At the end, the vanquished Boers were forced by the victorious British to accept humiliating terms of surrender. Allister Sparks appropriately calls that war "the culmination of the Century of Wrong."6
The ensuing rush to the Transvaal by fortune hunters and British capitalists resulted in changes of far reaching consequence for the region and its people. The African inhabitants valiantly tried to hold on to their tribal lands but were forced off them and onto the labor rolls of the mining interests. Their families were divided because the men had to move to the mining areas.
The area in which the labor camps and squatter villages were concentrated soon became the town of Johannesburg. By the beginning of the twentieth century Johannesburg had grown into South Aerica's most populous and politically explosive city In the first decade of the century, it was the site of Gandhi's greatest South African struggle, the crucible in which satyagraha was formed.
Indian arrivals
The first Indians to arrive in South Africa were brought there by the British as indentured laborers. The intention of the British in initiating this program was merely to fill the labor vacuum left, especially in Natal, by the abolition of slavery The program continued for fifty-one years, 1860-1911, during which period 384 ships transported 152 , 184 contract laborers from ports in sub-continental South Asia to ports in sub-Saharan Africa.7
The Englishmen did not expect to establish Indians as settlers in South Africa, but developments did not follow the original expectation. The term of indentured service was five years. A laborer was free to return to India upon completing the five-year term. However, in order to obtain free passage back to India, the laborer had either to reindenture for an additional five years or complete a five-year term of certified industrial service. The shipping service records show that, of the 152,184 original indentured emigres to South Africa, a mere 34,001 returned to India. The others settled as "free" Indians.8
The Indian society in South Africa grew rapidly into a complex community In addition to the indentured and free Indians there was another group called "passengers," persons who had come to South Africa at their own expense. The passenger Indians included merchants, financiers and professionals such as physicians, religious leaders, teachers and lawyers. There were also unexpected arrivals among the indentured groups: skilled workers such as artisans, carpenters, weavers and blacksmiths, persons whose occupations in India had been destroyed by voracious British colonial rule. They were willing the pay the price of spending five years of servitude in the hope of finding improved prospects for themselves and their families in a new land.9
The Indian population of South Africa also grew in numbers. As it did, it spread from Natal to the regions of the Cape and the Transvaal. Clearly, something unprecedented was occurring. Here at last was a group which would not, indeed could not, be pigeon-holed into South Africa's social pyramid.
Indians in Natal
The main concentration of the Indian population was in Natal. By 1893, the year in which Gandhi arrived in South Africa, the Indian community had become an appreciable portion of the total population. Natal had an indigenous and Colouredg population of about 400,000, a European population of abou.t 50,000 and an Indian population of about 51,000. Among the Indians, about 16,000 were indentured, 30,000 were free and working as household servants, hawkersh, fruiterers, storekeepers,metal-smiths, artisans, carpenters and clerks. Some of the free Indians had advanced by education or industry to become teachers, Iegal clerks and interpreters. Rounding out the Indian population were about 5,000 passenger traders and professionals.10
Indians in the Cape Colony
The Cape Colony had a very large general population, but a comparatively small Indian population. The total population in 1893 was perhaps 1,800,000, about 1,400,000 of whom were Coloured or indigenous Africans and roughly 10,000 were Indians. The Indians were employed mainly as hawkers, traders and laborers.11
Indians in the Afrikaner regions
The Indian population of the central Afrikaner region, the Transvaal, although relatively small in number, has a very significant place in the history of the region. In 1893, the combined indigenous and Coloured population was around 650,000. The Europeans numbered approximately 120,000 while the Indians numbered a mere 5,000. Indians could be found working as traders, Iaborers, hawkers, and as cooks and waiters in hotels and restaurants.12
Indians in the Transvaal possessed economic power far greater than their numbers suggest. The liquidated assets of the top two hundred Indian traders would have been as much as £100,000. Some of them owned international chains whose existence was mainly supported by the profits gained in the Transvaal. But the mining interests in the Transvaal were drawing new residents irom every sector of South Africa and irom all races and classes, including the Indians, as people flocked to the area in hope of quick enrichment. By th_e end of the century, the Transvaal's Indian population exceeded 13,000.13
The other Afrikaner region, the Orange Free State, was a closed area to the Indians. It had a total population of about 2 10,000, about 130,000 of whom were Coloured or indigenous. The remaining 80,000 were European. Until 1890 there were a few Indians employed as general servants and there were three known Indian stores. But in 1890 all Indian property was confiscated without compensation and all Indians were forced to leave the State.14
Suspicion and conflict marred relations between the newcomer Indians and the ruling whites in the Transvaal. The Indians looked upon themselves as British, causing them to suffer from the Boers' antipathy toward everything British. In addition, since they had dark skins, they were also subject to the Boer prejudice toward all non-white persons.
In addition to social conflicts, economic competition was pervasive in the Transvaal. Boer merchants bankers and businessmen were fearful of the increasing numbers of "Arab"i commercial people making their way into their territory Moreover, the indigenous Africans were pressed into the mining labor pool and they became an important new consumer market. The Afrikaners held a trading monopoly over that market and did not welcome Indian competition.
Wherever they settled, in the Cape, Natal or Transvaal, free Indians typically were industrious and thrifty. They tended to rise to better job opportunities, higher wage levels and larger savings accounts than did their white counterparts. The latter were threatened by this and regularly responded with hostility
Racial exclusion by legislation
Lawmakers in the various provinces were responsive to the anxiety and hostility which their constituents held toward the Indian settlers. New laws and regulations were enacted which were specifically designed to drive all Indians-except indentured laborers-out of the country. That intention was succinctly expressed by Harry Escrombe. In 1884, during the time he was Natal's Attorney General, he told a commission looking into Indian affairs: "This country was meant for Europeans and never intended to be an Asiatic country."15
Then in 1893, Escrombe, who had recently become the Prime Minister in the Natal government, introduced new anti-Indian legislation, flatly declaring:
[The Indians] are brought here for the purpose of supplying labour which is necessary for the development of local industries and enterprises, and they are not intended to form part and parcel of the South African nation....The Indians are to come here appreciated as laborers, but not welcomed as settlers and competitors.16Anti-Indian laws j varied somewhat from province to province, but they all shared a common aim: to force all non-indentured Indians to leave South Africa. Certain laws seemed desigued to make life so miserable and frustrating for free Indians that they would return to India. Some such laws made it illegal for Indians to vote, to walk on public side-walks, to ride in hired vehicles or to be out of doors after 9:00 p.m. Other laws limited Indian residence to speclfic 'coolie' locations. Indians were required to carry passes at all times and could not travel between provinces without written proof of special official permission.
There were also anti-Indian laws which made economic survival in South Africa practically impossible. These laws included, on the basis of race, denial of such rights as the right to own land to own native gold or to hold a diggers license. They required free Indians to pay an annual £3 head-tax on each adult (from age thirteen for girls and sixteen for boys) ,while restricting their annual family incomes to £12. Trading permits for free and passenger Indians were subject to annual review. Permits could be revoked summarily by the reviewing officer with no provision for appeal.
Gandhi and anti-Indian laws
Gandhi led the Indians of South Africa in many struggles for reform of the racist, anti-Indian laws. The most significant struggle he led began in 1906. It lasted for seven years, during which time Gandhi developed and honed his fandous philosophy of nonviolence, satyagraha, and became an internationally recognized figure. In August of 1906 the colonial government announced a new legislative initiative, the Transvaal Asiatic Amendment Ordinance. If enacted into law, it would require all Asians over the age of eight to register, giving the prints of all ten fingers, and to carry a pass at all times. Their persons and domiciles would be subject to summary search by the police and any Asian found without a pass would be fined £100. Gandhi called the Ordinance "abominable,"17 an assessment with which the Indian community agreed.
The culminating civil action of Gandhi's career in South Africa was the "Great March into the Transvaal." It was triggered by an historic Cape Town Supreme Court decision of March 14,1913. The ruling declared that only those Indian marriages conducted by Christian rites were legal. This meant that all wives and children of non-Christian Indians were no longer entitled to live in South Africa. It also meant that they could not inherit the property and monetary assets of a deceased husband or father. After that ruling, Gandhi and his fellow workers began training satyagrahi resisters, including women for the first time, for that historic effort. Then, during November and December of 1913 ,Gandhi and his wife led thousands of illegally striking indentured Indians, including women and children, from Natal into the Transvaal. The march was followed by a general strike by free Indians and other Indian traders and merchants. Continuous press coverage reported those events to the people throughout South Africa, England and India.
The end result of that struggle was the Indian Relief Law which was passed on June 30, 1914. Indian Relief was Gandhi's greatest victory over legalized racism in South Africa. It reinstated the legality of non-Christian marriages. It also removed the oppressive taxes which had been levied exclusively upon ex-indentured Indians and brought an end to the systern of indentured labor in South Africa .
On July 18, 1914, Gandhi returned to India where he presently become the Mahatma and the leader of India's independence movement. He led the freedom struggle on the basis of satyagraha, the foundation of which he had laid in South Africa.
a The terms "Native" and "Coloured" are now out of date, but they are employed in this paper when doing so will maintain the important distinctions they indicated during the historical period under discussion.
b Boer ("farmer" in English): Descendants of the original Dutch settlers and others from Portugal, Germany and France.
c Trekking spirit
dNigger-loving
e Fore-trekkers or pioneers
f Niece of the legendary trek leader Piet Retief.
gThe former slaves throughout South Africa sought to be identified as "Coloured" m order to avoid the e conomrc and social disabilities suffered by the indigenous Africans who were still offlcially "Native."
h Street vendors
i The Afrikaners used this designation, evidently because most ot the Indian traders were Muslim.
j For provmce-by-provmce details of these laws, see the author's SocralJustice though Nonvrolence, et. al., 14-18.
Crossing the Barriers
Gandhi labored tirelessly for justice under the law on behalf of the Indians in South Africa but he never took direct action for the rights of the black South Africans. Many persons have wondered why The answer lies, not in the absence of an egalitarian spirit within Gandhi himself, but in the socio-legal fabric of colonial South Africa.
Barriers
There were a number of barriers between the indigenous Africans and the Indians which made it difflcult for joint struggle against the racist oppression under which both groups suffered.
The most obvious among those barriers was the disparate ethnic histories in South Africa. Theindigenous people were victims of centuries-long experiences of invasion, expropriation and marginalization by the conquering Europeans. The Indians, on the other hand, were recently arrived expatriates, victims of exploitation, deportation and exclusion by the Europeans. They shared no common culture, history or language.
Another barrier was insidious disinformation regarding the true identity of the indigenous people. Initially, the Indians were misled by their white masters to believe that: "These Negroes are supposed to have been descendants of some of the slaves in America who managed to escape from their cruel bondage and migrated to Africa."I
Perhaps the most formidable barrier that separated Indians from other non-white people was the denial of common legal ground on which to struggle. All of Gandhi's efforts to bring justice to his people were directed at the legal system supporting racial discrimination. The "Natives," "Coloureds" and "Asians" in South Africa were governed under almost entirely different statutes.a A prominent case to point was the matter of the coolie locations in the Transvaal. As was seen above, the Indians were forced into these locations as part of the white government's ongoing effort to discourage the presence in South Africa of all non-indentured Indians. The official policy of the British Colonial Ofiice regarding indigenous people, on the contrary, was geared to the development of the gold and diamond mine industries. The policy was to set aside "reserves" in the Transvaal "in order to reproduce and regiment the vast cheap labour force required by the mines."2 In 1901, Lord Alfred Milner, who was Governor of the Transvaal and Orange Free State, and who was somewhat sympathetic to the Indians' cause, argued in favor of changing the provisions of the laws in order to permit Indians to become part of the permanent labor reserves of the mines.
Milner's proposal was blocked. The opposition which blocked it was jointly led by the Cornmissioner for Mines, Wyberg, and his superior, the Commissioner for Native Affairs, Lagden. On the basis of information provided by Wyberg, Lagden advised Milner against any modification of existing laws regarding Indian residence. He justified his advice on the grounds that: "The attitude of British colonies in other parts of the world illustrates the necessity of guarding against the misguided efforts of those who advocate that British Indians be allowed to insinuate themselves wholesale into the dornestic life of a society which is alien." Lagden recommended, in order to prevent "the foundations of further embitterment between races having a substratum of mutual antipathy toward each other," that all but certain high-class Indians should continue to be confined to locations.3
Divide and rule
As the foregoing discussion clearly shows, the policies of the British colonial governments in South Africa were guided by a classic principle of imperialism, divide and rule. During the early post Boer War years, the principle was generally enforced by the construction of legal and political barriers designed to keep the non-while groups separate from each other.
When the effectiveness of the legal barriers between the Indians and the indigenous South Africans began to wane, the British adroitly resorted to fostering psychological barriers, illusions of superiority and inferiority among the various non-while groups. This was challenged by the foremost indigenous leader, Dr. Abdulla Abdurrahman. He denounced the schernes of the government to divide people into "watertight compartments." He pointed out that, in addition to denying common legal ground to various non-white groups, the government was seeking to divide them mentally by prornoting racial divisions among them. Abdurrahman explained the pernicious but seductive enticement toward a sense of racial superiority and warned against falling into that psychological trap:
To the Malay, the government said: "We will make you different from the Asiatics," and to the Coloured man: "You will get the status of the white man." Some poor deluded fools already walked the streets as if they were white and really better than all others.4
The pre-South African Gandhi
Gandhi lived in London from 1888 to 1891. His primary purpose for going there was to study law. During that time, he also eagerly imbibed ideas of human equality which he discovered in the teachings of Jesus in the New Testament's "Sermon on the Mount,"b the Bhagavad Gita ,c and the Manusmriti, d He was deeply impressed with a poem in the Manusmriti that emphasized the line "the truly noble know all men as one."5
After he returned to India from London, Gandhi casually ignored Viashnavic laws prohibiting sociallymingling across caste lines. While he lived in Bombay (1891-1892), Gandhi, who enjoyed cooking and was always experimenting with 'improvements' in his vegetarian diet, not only shared the kitchen chores with his manservant; the two of them also enjoyed their meals together.6 Fatima Meer declares that if one carefully considers "Gandhi's early rejection of caste, it will be clear that he could never have been a racist."7
Caste and color in India
Does Gandhi's rejection of caste directly imply, as Meer suggests, a rejection of racial divisions? The answer lies in the inextricable link between racial differences and the social divisions fixed within the caste system of India.
The origin of the caste system is imbedded in the invasion of India by semi-nomadic Aryane people around 2000 B.C. Even though the invaders were not pure white, as proponents of a pure Aryan race such as Germany's Nazis and America's white supremacists have insisted, archeological researches have discovered that the Aryans were in fact "comparatively fair, and mostly long-headed" people.8
Some individuals among the invading Aryans were deeply religious and expressed their religious sentiments in impressive verse form. They had a great impact on the subsequent development of Indian religious thought and social structure. At the time of the Aryans' arrival, the ancient body of Indic religious poetry that is now known as the Rg Veda had already become a great collection. The conquering Aryans edited it, adding some of their own poetry, and presently laid claim to authorship of the entire text.
One of the most far-reaching contributions which the Aryan religious poets made to the Veda was the addition of their own understanding of the origin of society from one primal ancestor. According to the Aryan myth, that primal man was divided into four individuals known as varna. In turn, the four varna were said to be the respective ancestors of the four classes in the social hierarchy: priest (brahmana), warrior (ksatrlya), peasant (vaisya), and serf (sudra). In the Indian implantation, predictably, the Aryan poets became the brahman priests. This fourfold division of society is still considered in Hindu orthodoxy to be fundamental and divinely ordained.9
Unfortunately, the original Sanskrit term for the divisions, varna , has regularly been mistranslated by Europeans. The problem began with the Portuguese. When Vasco da Gama and his party reached India in 1498, they recorded their empirical observation that India's society was characterized by fixed divisions, using the Portuguese word, casta. The same sense of the word was subsequently carried forward by the English translation by using the term "caste," which merely suggests social, not racial, divisions. In that regard, Basham comments significantly:
The Sanskrit word used for them, varna, means "colour," and itself indicates their origin in the development of the old [Aryan] tribal class structure in contact with people of different complexion and alien culture. The term varna does not mean "caste," and has never meant "caste."10Class stratification grew more rigid during the late Vedic period.f During that time the dominant Aryans increased their supremacy over the darker majority of the population. Tribal class-divisions hardened, and "the dark-skinned aboriginal found a place only in the basement of the Aryan social structure, as a serf with few rights and many disabilities."11
During the colonial period, the four-caste structure of Indian society was further reified by the economic and political power structures that formed around the four castes. But the fundamentally racial significance of the structure was not thereby erased from the Indian psyche. Generally speaking, the darker a person's skin color was, the lower his caste was likely to be.
Thus, Indian persons who ignored caste-related distinctions were almost certainly ignoring any racial differences between themselves and others. And therein lies the race-related significance of Gandhi's interdining with his manservant.
Breaching the barriers
During the tirne Gandhi worked in South Africa, he steadily overcame the barriers that divided the Indians from other non-white people. In the process, he increasingly included them in his concern for justice. That concern was highlighted in four particulars of Gandhi's life in South Africa: his visit to the Trappist monastery in Pinetown, his acquaintance with Rev. John Dube, his response to the Bambatha rebellion and his relationship with Dr. Abdulla Abdurrahman.
Trappist monastery
There is clear evidence of Gandhi's egalitarian mind-set in the record of his first contact with indigenous South Africans. That was his visit, in 1895, to the Trappist monastery at Marian Hill in Pinetown. He was deeply impressed by the clean living conditions, dedicated Christian living, strictly vegetarian diets and the industry and equality that he observed among the German missionaries and the residents.
Following the visit to Pinetown, Gandhi coninbuted an article to The Vegetarian about the monastery. He commented at length on the respectftil attitude of the brothers and sisters toward the indigenous residents of the mission. He wrote, in part:
They believe in no colour distinctions. These Natives are accorded the same treatment as the whites.... They get the same food as the brothers [and sisters] and are dressed as well.... On the settlement there are various workshops-blacksmiths,' tinsmiths,' carpenters,' shoemakers,' tanners,' [sic] etc., where the Natives are taught all these useful industries, in addition to the English and Zulu languages. Here it may be remarked that it speaks volumes for the high-mindedness of the noble settlers, that, although most of them are Germans, they never attempt to teach the Natives German; all these Natives work side by side with the whites.12The visit to the monastery occurred barely two years after Gandhi first arrived in South Africa. As that article indicates, even at that early period of his sojourn in South Africa, he considered his Zulu neighbors, their language and their culture worthy of respect and equal treatment.
John Dube
Gandhi's most famous ashram, the Phoenix Settlement near Durban, was established in November, 1904. He established it as a common-1ife, vegetarian community for the purposes of running his newspaper, Indian Qpinim and training nonviolent resisters. The Ohlange Institute, an African commune and school, was located about a mile from the Phoenix Settlement. Ohlange had been founded a year earlier by Rev. John Langalibalele Dube, who was also the editor and publisher of the African newspaper, Ilanga lase Natal.
Dube had studied in the United States and come under the influence of America's pioneer Negro educator, Booker T. Washington. Upon his return to Natal, Dube established and operated Ohlange
Institute after the example of the school for former slaves, the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, that Washington had founded in 1851 in Tuskegee, Alabama.
Dube and Gandhi became mutually respectful friends.g In 1905, they both attended the annual meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science which was held in Mount Edgecombe at the residence of a white humanitarian, Marshal Campbell. Dube made a speech to the assembly in which he declared that "to deprive the Africans of their land and rights in Natal, the land of their birth, [was] like banishing them from their home." He asked the delegates to remember that "without the Africans the whites could not carry on for a moment." Gandhi was impressed by Dube and reported in Indian Opinion: "This Mr. Dube is a Negro of whom one should know."13
A few months later, Gandhi wrote about Dube's work: "He has acquired through his own labours over 300 acres of land near Phoenix. There he imparts education to his brethren, teaching them various trades and crafts and preparing for the battle of life."I4 E. S. Reddy, in his study of the Gandhi-Dube relationship, writes:
There was frequent social contact between the inmates of the Phoenix Settlement and the Ohlange Institute.... Zulus and whites used to attend Gandhi's prayer meetings at Phoenix. [Gandhi] was often seen playing with Indian and Zulu children.15Bambatha's Zulu Rebellion
In February, 1906, in an effort to reduce its operating revenue deficits, the Natal colonial government imposed a special poll tax on the Zulu people.
The Zulu people rejected that imposition and killed two English soldiers who were sent to collect the tax. In reprisal, the Natal government deposed Chief Bambatha and installed a compliant African in his stead. Then they seized twelve Zulu men, Iined them up at the mouth of a cannon and blew them to bits with a single shot. Gandhi expressed his sympathy for the Zulus a few day later in Indian Opinion:
[The] British Empire has received a set-back. The Natives in Natal rose in revolt against the poll tax. Sergeants Hunt and Armstrong were killed in the revolt....Twelve lives have been taken for two.16Chief Bambatha and his men kidnapped the new chief and took him into the hills. The British tried to track them down. Initially, however, the pursuers encountered defeat. Gandhi viewed that as divine retribution:
But God intervened on behalf of the twelve, when a party, including the Englishman who had shot the twelve natives, pursued the deposed Bambatha, who had kidnapped his successor. Bambatha and his men encircled the party and though they fought bravely, the soldiers were defeated in the end....The dead included those who had shot the twelve Africans. Such' is the law of God.17The British response to that defeat was swift. A powerful force was raised to crush the rebellion and capture Bambatha. Gandhi recruited a twenty-four-man volunteer stretcher corps, comprised of four Gujaratis including Gandhi, one free Pathan, the remainder being ex-indentured free men from South India. Gandhi and his followers, in a spirit of true human equality, accepted the assignment of treating the wounds of Zulu prisoners of war. They worked under the supervision of the Chief Medical Officer, Dr. Savage.
The white members of the medical force whom Savage 'commanded' refused to treat Zulu POWs. Some of the them had gunshot wounds and some had been cruelly whipped as suspected spies during questioning. Their untreated wounds were beginning to rot. Gandhi wrote in his Autobiography:
[Dr. Savage] hailed our arrival as a godsend for those innocent people, and he equipped us with bandages, disinfectants, etc., and took us to the improvised hospital. The Zulus were delighted to see us. The white soldiers used to peep through the railings that separated us from them and tried to dissuade us fromWhen the fighting was over, Gandhi and his men carried wounded Zulus out of the battle zone. Gandhi pondered the events of carnage and prejudice he had just experienced with deep mental agony during the long homeward trek:
attending to the wounds. And as we would not heed them, they became enraged and poured unspeakable abuse on the Zulus.18
The Zulu "rebellion" was full of new experiences and gave me much food for thought. The Boer War had not brought home to me the horrors of war with anyihing like the vividness that the "rebellion" did. This was no war but a man-hunt....To hear every morning reports of the soldiers' rifles exploding like crackers
in innocent hamlets, and to live in the midst of them was a inal. But I swallowed the bitter draught, especially as the work of my Corps consisted only in nursing the wounded Zulus. I could see that but for us the Zulus would have been uncared for. This work, therefore, eased my conscience.19
Abdulla Abdurrahman
In June of 1909, Britain began moving rapidly toward forming the Union of South Africa. That action would consolidate the four existing colonies, the Cape Colony, the Colony of Natal, the Transvaal Colony and the Orange Free State Colony, under one central government, a republic with powers of home rule. The executive was to be in Pretoria, to please the Afrikaners. The legislature was to be in Cape Town, to pacify the British.
Gandhi described the new development as a "union of hostile forces."20 The Indian leaders agreed with Gandhi and appointed him and Haji Habib, a trusted Muslim businessman, as a two-man delegation to London. Their mission was to lobby to prevent the racial bars in the anti-Indian laws of the Transvaal from becorning common to the entire country upon union.
They failed in the primary mission. The racial bars were firmly implanted in the policies of the new republican government. On the other hand, however, Gandhi was able to make important external bonds during the trip. Very significantly, Gandhi, Habib and Dr. Abdulla Abdurrahman, the President of the African Political Organization, who was lobbying for the African cause in the new union, travelled on the same ships to London and return. The three men shared information and gave each other moral support.
Upon their return to South Africa, this friendship became a new bridge between the Africans and Indians, adding to the one already existing between Gandhi's Phoenix and Dube's Ohlange communities. A welcome rally was held for Dr. Abdurrahrnan on November 30, the day of their arrival back in Cape Town. Gandhi and Habib were Abdurrahman's guests at the rally and Gandhi was invited to speak. It was a very risky thing to do, one that only persons of decidedly egalitarian convictions would have been likely to venture upon. That day, November 30, 1909, was probably the first time Indian South Africans and indigenous South Africans joined in an activity that might be described as
political.
Fully three decades would pass before Africans such as Nelson Mandela and Indians such as I. C. Meer would stand and struggle together, draft the South African Freedom Charter together, be tried for treason and go to jail together-in the common cause of justice and freedom as "equals, countrymen and brothers."21 But the bedrock of the foundation upon which they would stand was firmly laid by such pioneers of racial justice as Gandhi, Habib, Dube and Abdurrahman.
a The Indians and the Chinese, both originally brought to South Africa as indentured laborers, were governed by "Asiatic" Iaws and administrative departments.
b Gospel of Matthew, chapters 5-7.
c The Hindu bible
dA collection of the laws compiled by Manu, the Hindu law-giver who was to the Hindu religion as Moses was to the Hebrew religion.
e From the regions now known as central Europe and the Middle East
f Around 1000 to 700 B.C.
g Gandhi and Dube were similar in several important respects. Gandhi founded the NlC in 1894 and Dube founded the Natal Native Congress in 1900. He had launched the English and Zulu weekly, Ilanga lase Natal in June of 1903 just six months before Gandhi started Indian Opinion. Furthermore, while Gandhi went on to lead the entire Indian cau'se in South Africa, his friend Dube likewise became the founding president of South African's first nation-wide African organization, the African National Congress. It was organized at the Ohlange Institute in 1912. The Ohlange Institute was a polling place in South Africa's first democratic elections in 1994 Nelson Mandela the winnin residential candidate, cast his ballot there.
The Newtown Location
Huttenback, du Toit and others have implied that the South African Gandhi was a racist, quoting his statement about "mixing of the Kafiirs with the Indians" in the Newiown Location. But, as will be made clear in the following paragraphs, that statement does not indicate racism if it is read in the proper historical context of Gandhi's extended correspondence with the Municipal Authority of Johaunesburg about the situation in the location.
The Porler lefters
,, Gandni's objection was not to placin・g Africans and Indians in the same neighborhood. It was an objection to increasing the population of an already dangerously overcrowded location. Huttenback's quotation is from a letter that Gandhi wrote to Dr. C. Porter, Medical Officer of Health, Municipal Authority of Johannesburg, on February 15, 1904. It concerned the recent increase, through the introduction of a number of black African residents, in the population of the Newiowa Location in Johannesburg. That letter came near the end of long series of letters during a controversy which had extended over a period of five years.
Gandhi frst visited the location in 1899. He was appalled by the overcrowded, unsanitary conditions he observed. He wrote to the Municipal Authority and appealed for relief, pointing out that it was a serious situation; almost noprovision was being made for sanitation, rodent control, passable roads, Iighting, drainage or additional land for the growing population.1He continued, altogether unsuccessfully, to make such appeals until he returned to India in 1901.
After Gandni came back to South Africa in 1902, he became the representative of the newly organized Transvaal-based British Indian Association (BIA). He again pressed the Municipal Authority for hygienic reform in the locations, Newiown in particular, on behalf of the BIA. The Authority responded in 1903 by commissioning a medical investigative team to study the situation. Governor Milner was a member of the team. He dwelt on the dangerous "insanitation" in the location and insisted on remedial legislation. But the other members of the commissron dismrssed the governor's claims as "hysteria."2 The city remained in a state of negligent inaction.
Moreover, in. evident disregard for the health of Africans as well as Indians, a large African population was introduced into the already bulging Newiown Location. Alarmed, Gandhi wrote a desperate letter to Medical Officer Porter on February 1 1, 1904. In that letter, he reiterated the "shocking. state of the Indian Location," and warned Porter that, "if the present state of things is continued, the outbreak of some epidemic disease is merely a question of time." He urgently requested Porter to visit the location to see for himself.3
Porter visited the location as requested, but the Authority continued to maintain that remedial action was neither necessary nor possible. Dismayed, Gandhi wrote to Porter again on February 15. Gandhi thanked the Medical Officer for making the visit but larnented the inaction:
[If]the Town Council takes up a position of non possumus"', it will be an abnegation of its function.... I feel conuinced that every minute wasted over the matter merely hastens a calamity for Johannesburg.... [A] few hundred pounds now spent will probably cause a savings of thousands of pounds; for if, unfortunately, an epidemic breaks out in the Location, panic will ensue and money will be spent like water in order to cure an evil which is now absolutely preventable.... About this mixing of the Kaffirs with the Indians, I must confess I feel strongly. I think it is very unfair to the Indian population, and it is an undue tax on even the proverbial patience of my countrymen,4That correspondence was not a response to the presence of the additional residents on the basis of their skin color. Under the prevailing circumstances, Gandhi would have protested the introduction of any new residents regardless of their race.
Plague
Gandhi's letter was prophetic. Thirty-six days later, on March 19, an explosive outbreak of pneumonic plague occurred in Newiown. The municipality, realizing the dire threat to the entire city, swiftly and effectively moved to contain the epidemic. Before it was controlled, however, more that one hundred and twenty persons had been infected and eighty-six had died; and all the residents of Newiown had been loaded on a special train and taken to a hastily erected canvas tent city, safely distant from the city. The Newtown Location, with all the belongings of its residents, had been sent up in flames. In addition, a search for dead rats had been carried out. Some were found in the Municipal Market, which, as a sanitary precaution, also had to be razed, at considerable expense to the city.
If one looks into this tragic episode-or in any correspondence concerning it-for traces of racial prejudice, such traces will not be found on the Indian side of the matter. But they will be quite apparent in the white government which, as Gandhi later noted, had remained in a state of
"negligence" regarding the health of its non-white citizens, but "was wide awake so far as the health of its white citizens was concerned."5
Focus on racism
Two weeks after Gandhi first arrived in South Africa, on the evening of June 7, 1893, he boarded National Government Railways train for Pretoria out of Durban Station. He was in a first-class compartrnent At about 9・00 p.m. the train reached Pietermaritzburg, the capital of Natal. A white passenger who chanced to notice the presence of the non-white passenger in first class summoned a policeman. The officer instructed Gandhi to move to the luggage compartment. He refused and was pitched off the train.
A bitter cold wind was blowing across the dark station platform as Gandhi sat there, humiliated. His overcoat was in his luggage, which was in the possession of the station-master. But, fearing further insult, he refrained from asking for the coat and sat through the long winter night, shivering and pondering what to do. He even considered leaving South Africa at once, but rejected that as an act
of cowardice. Finally, as dawn was breaking, he made up his mind:
The hardship to which I was subjected was superficial-only a symptom of the deep disease of colour prejudice. I should try, if possible, to root out the disease and suffer hardships in the process. Redress of wrongs I should seek only to the extent that would be necessary for the removal of colour prejudice.6Later in life,in a conversation with a Christian missionary, John Mott, Gandhi recalled that humiliation as the "most creative experience"7 of his life. He spent the next twenty-one years in South Africa clearl focussing on the oppressive structures of color prejudice, and trying, as he said, to root them out. Surely he was able to maintain that focus because his moral vision was not cloud~d by any astigmatism of racism within himself.
a Used to claim inability to do what has been requested.
REFERENCES
Introduction
1. Time, Dec. 31, 1999, 64.
2. Du Toit, "The Mahatma Gandhi and South Africa," 653.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid.
6. Ibid.
South Africa's polyracial Sociely
l .See "A Note on Class and Colour in South Africa "in Meil,South Africa Belongs to Us,xii-xxi.
2. Sparks, The Mind of South Africa, 43.
3 Ibid.,105.
4 Ibid.,97.
5. Cited in Klausner, Sarnuel Z "Invocation and Constraint of Religious Zealotry. "Violence in America,
Vol XIII, 219-20.
6. Sparks, op cit., 128.
7. Henning, The Indentured Indlan in Natal, 30-33, 56.
8. Ibid., 23.
9. Ibid., 7-8.
10. Meer, The South African Gandhi, 160ff. Note: All quotations of Gandhi's correspondence and
Indian opinion articles in this essay are from reproductions in The South African Gandhi.
l l. Ibid.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid.
14. Ibid.
15. Henning, op. cit., 94.
16. Ibid., 95.
17. Indian Opinion, September 1, 1906.
Crossing the Barriers
1. Gandhi, Satyagraha in South Africa, 7.
2. Swan, Gandhi, The South African Experience, 94.
3. Ibid., 95.
4. Bhana, Gandhi's Legacy, The Natal Indlan Congress ,1894-1994, 43.
5. Gandhi, Autobiography, 35.
6 Ibid., 93.
7. Personal interview, March 20, 1999, in Durban
8. Basham, The Wonder that was India, 28-29.
9. Ibid., 35.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid., 137.
12 Gandhi ,"A Band of Vegetarian Missonaries." The Vegetarian, May 18, 1895.
13. Indian Opinion, Feb.9, 1905.
14. Quoted in Reddy, "Dube and Gandhi in Freedom Struggle," in Pietermaritzburg Gandhi Memorial
Committee, Mahatma Gandhi Centenary, et. al., 40-42.
15. Ibid.
16. Indian Opinion, April 7, 1906.
17. Indian Opinion, April 14, 1906.
18. Gandhi, Autobiography, 314.
19. Ibid., 315-316.
20. Meer, The South African Gandhi, 290.
21. From the preamble of the South African Freedom Charter. Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom, 204.
The Newtown Location
1. Meer, op. cit. 791.
2. Minutes of the Johannesburg Town Council Meeting, August 13, 1903.
3. Letter to Dr. C. Porter, Medical Officer of Health, Feb. 11, 1904.
4. Letter to Dr. C. Porter, et. al., Feb. 15, 1904.
5. Gandhi, Autobiography.,295.
6. Ibid., 112.
7. Randall, SocialJustice through Nonviolence, et. al., 41.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Basham, A. L.. The Wonder that Was India. Evergreen edition, Vol. 1. New York: Macmillan, 1959.
Bhana, Surendra. Gandhi's Legacy,The Natal Indian Congress.
Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 1997.
Du Toit, Brian M. "The Mahatma Gandhi and South Africa." The Journal ofModern African Studies, 34,
4. Cambridge University Press,1996.
Fernando, Suman. Race and Culture in Psychiatry. New York:
Tavistoc/Routledge, 1988.
Fischer, Louis. Gandhi. His Llfe and Message for the World. New York:
Mentor Books, 1982.
Gandhi, Mohandas K.. Mohandas K.. Gandhi, An Autobiography,The Story ofMy Experiments with Truth,
Mahadev Desai, trans. Reprint of 1957 Beacon Paperback edition with a new introduction by Sissela Bok.. Boston: Beacon, Paperback, 1993.
--- Satyagraha in South Africa. J. V. Desai, trans. Revised Second Edition, Fifth Printing.Ahmedabad:
Navajivan Publishing House, 1997.
Henning, C. G. The Indentured Indian in Natal: 1860-1917. New Deli,
Durban: Promilla and Co., Publishers, 1993.
Klausner, Samuel Z. "Invocation and Constraint of Religious Zealotry."
Violence in America, Vol. XIII. Leon Friedman. ed. New York: Chelsea House, 1983.
Kuper Hilda "Strangers' in Plural Societies: Asians in South Africa and Uganda. " Pluralism in Africa
Leo Kuper and M. G. Smith, eds. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971.
Meer, Fatima, ed. The South African Gandhi: An Abstract of the Speeches and Writings ofM.K..Gandhi,
1893-1914. 2nd edition. Durban: Institute for Black Research, University of Natal, 1996.
Meli, Francis South Africa Belongs to Us. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988.
Pietermaritzburg KZNatal South Africa. Mahatma Gandhi Centenary: Unveiling of the Gandhi
Memorial 6June 1993. Gandhi Memorial Committee, PO Box 110, June 6, 1993.
Pietermaritzburg KZNatal, South Africa, Pietermaritzburg-Msunduzi Transitional Local Council,
"Special Meeting for the Purpose of Conferring Civic Honours." Office of the Mayor: April 25,
1997.
Randall, William T. Social Justice through Nonviolence in the Twentieth Century: A Peace Studies Reader
on Mohandas Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr. Naha: Okinawa International Universit , Kinjo Press, 2001.
Sparks Allister. The Mind of South Africa. London: Heinemann, 1997.
Swan, Maureen, Gandhi, The South African Experience. Johannesburg: Ravan Press, 1985.
ガンディーは民族的偏見の持ち主だったか−屈辱的体験と覚醒−
ウイリアムT.ランドール
(金澤美和訳)
序
モハンダス・ガンディー。彼は大英帝国とその強大な軍事カが常に民衆の意思を抑圧できるわけではないことを証明した。
ヨハンナ・マクゲーリーがタイム誌「20世紀の人物」特集号aに寄せたガンディーに関するエッセイによると、彼女はガンディーの人間臭い側面を強調することで彼の輝かしい功績を打ち砕こうとする風潮を嘆いている。
偉大なる魂の持ち主であるマハトマは、非暴カ主義や民衆の権利獲得など、人類が理想とする最も優れた思想の象徴として私達に今も記憶されている。マハトマ・カラマチャント・ガンディーの素顔は、一風変わった私達の理解をはるかに超えた個性的な人物だった。人間臭い面を強調することで英雄の功績をおとしめようとする「フィン デ スリュウ」b世紀末の退廃的な傾向は、ガンディーの偉大なる功績に対して彼の素朴な人間的な素顔を暴露することで報いるようなものである。1
本論では、マクゲーリーが指摘したガンディーをおとしめるような風潮、すなわち南アフリカ時代のガンディーが人種差別主義者だったという説に対して真実を追究することを目的とする。
ガンディーは自分達インド人が南アフリカ土着の民族よりも優れていると認識していたという説は、何も真新しいものではない。1950年代から60年代にかけて、アメリカでは公民権運動が行われていた時期、ガンディーはヨハネスバーグの居住地域でインド人をないがしろにしアフリカ系黒人を入居させたことに公然と異議を唱えていた。白人優位論者や人種隔離の擁護者らはこの点を指摘して、ガンディーが南アフリカの黒人達の人権のために尽くそうとはしなかったと主張する。
南アフリカ滞在中、ガンディーがその土地に昔から住んでいた隣人達に対して平等主義という立場ではなかったということは、学術的にも指摘されている。このような視点から書かれた論文のなかで代表的なものが、1996年のジャーナル・アフリカン・スタディースに掲載されたブライアン・M・デュトワによるものである。デュトワは、ガンディーが南アフリカで活動した21年間、「彼の活動は徐々に拡大していったものの、アフリカ人の窮状も含めその活動目的を達成したとは言いがたい」2と主張する。彼は、ガンディーの活動が法律問題の顧客だったインド人エリート層の意向に左右されていたことを理由にその論をさらに強める。彼らインド人エリート層の態度は突きつめて言えば、「排他的かつ利己的なもの」3だからである。デュトワによると、「ガンディーとその仲間達が目にするアフリカ人達は無害な農民に限られており、インド人は自分達の闘争を孤立無援のうちに闘い、精神的勝利を勝ち取っていた。」4
インド人の人種差別的態度が明らかになったのは、デュトワによると、「1904年のヨハネスバーグ市当局による決定、インド人居住区における公衆衛生整備を行わないこと、また、インド人居住区へのアフリカ人の入居を認可すること」5がきっかけである。ガンディーは、デュトワによるとだが、彼は肌の色を理由にヨハネスバーグ市の決定に異議を唱えた。デュトワは以下にあるハッテンバツクの論文「南アフリカのガンディー」からの引用を用いて彼の論調を補強する。
(当時の)ガンディーは人々に記憶されているような普遍的平等主義者ではなく、むしろ伝統的なグジャラティ出身ヴァイシャ層の側に立って活動した。専門家によると、「このようにカフファcをインド人達と混ぜ合わせることについて、私が強く感じたことを告白しなければならない。私にはこれがインド人層に対して不公平で私達インド人特有の我慢強さを持ってしても耐え難い負担を強いるものだと考える。」6デュトワもハッテンバツクも、共通してマハトマ・ガンディーが高く評価されている点を指摘している。上述の資料から、どちらもその後ガンディーが南アフリカ時代に持っていた人種差別的な考え方を克服しその人生において平等主義者の指導者として人間的に成熟したと証明することを試みている。
優れた知識人である彼らはガンディーについて議論の余地がないと考えた。また、南アフリカ滞在中にガンディーの内面で完成された個人的な変化は革新的なものに他ならないと力説した。dさらに、以下のページにおいてガンディーの内にほんの僅かな時期であっても偏見や人種差別意識が存在したという言説を歴史的記録に照らし合わせながら否定することを試みた。
a 1999年12月31日号。ガンディーはフランクリンD.ルーズベルトと第二位を分かち合っている。ちなみに第一位はアルバート・アインシュタインである。
b Fin de slecle。フランス語。世紀末の意。しかしこれは一般的に英語ではデカダンス的な時代の終焉を指すために使用される。
c 1857年、ケープ植民地における南アフリカ教会会議で神は黒人達を除外されたという決議をおこなった。"カフファ"とはアラブ語の"インフィデル"に相当し、アフリカ系黒人を指す一般的な単語として使用された。また、南アフリカの白人にとって"ニガー(黒人の差別語として)"という意味が含まれていた。
d 南アフリカ時代のガンディーの人間的な変化についての詳細な記述は、『Victory over Self』 Social Justice Nonviolence p61-p74
南アフリカにおける民族間の権カ構造
ガンディーは1914年まで南アフリカで過ごした。この21年間を彼は南アフリカで虐げられていたインド人のために、彼らを抑圧する法律に抵抗する不断の闘争に費やした。南アフリカの数世紀に渡る人種的抑圧の歴史からみると、ガンディーの物語りはささやかなものである。それゆえ、ガンディーの南アフリカにおける体験を明らかにするためには、この負の歴史を理解する必要がある。南アフリカにおける人種差別の歴史とガンディーの登場を以下に簡単に記述する。
南アフリカ、ヨーロッパ人の登場以前
現在南アフリカと呼ばれている地方にヨーロッパ人が初めて足を踏み入れたとき、彼らはコーサ・ズールー・ツワナ・ソト・ペディ・シャンガーン・ヴェンダ・サン・コイ・グリークヮといった多種多様な部族国家を目の当たりにした。彼らの社会はその土地は気候そして各部族間の交流を通して、何世紀にも渡って発展してきた。したがって、彼らの間には様々な文化・言語一習慣が発達した。1
ヨーロッパ人の出現
初めてヨーロッパ人がその地方に拠点の建設を試みたのは1497年のことだった。バルトメロウ・ディァスとバスコ・ダ・ガマという二人のポルトガル人探検家がアフリカ大陸沿岸の航海ルートを発見した。彼らは南大西洋とインド洋をのぞむアフリカ大陸最南端に停泊地の建設を考えていた。しかし彼らの計画は鋭く吹き付ける強い向かい風と渦巻く潮流に阻まれ、彼らは去っていった。ディアスとダ・ガマは最終的に南アフリカからインドにあるゴアを目指して出帆したのである。
事実上最初のヨーロッパ人入植は、1652年にジャン・ヴァン・リービークが東インド会社の前哨基地をゴッド・ホープ岬、現在はケープタウンの名で知られる土地に建設したときに始まった。彼の使命は二つあった。一つはアジアや南大西洋の港を目指すオランダ船舶のために休息と食料を供給すること、もう一つは外国の競争相手たちからインド洋の利権を守ることだった。
白人入植者たちは土地を求めて居住地の外へ、山々や草原へ向かい聖書を片手に神に選ばれた民族であるという誇りとオランダ人特有の農民的な素朴かつ強い信念とともに拡大していった。オランダ人たちの時代は事実上2世紀にわたり、その間に彼らはオランダ本国から取り残された時代遅れ的存在になってしまった。
オランダ人と「先住民」
昔からアフリカに住んでいた土着の人々(オランダ人により公式に「ネイティヴ(先住民)」とみなされた)に対するオランダ東インド会社の方針は、彼ら先住民と入植者の接触を家畜などの物々交換といった必要最小限に抑えるというものだった。東インド会社には、植民地経営や先住民に対する責任について何ら意図するところがなかった。入植者達は地元のアフリカ人達を奴隷として使用することさえも禁じられていた。
ヴァン・リービークは、アフリカの先住民との接触が東インド会社の方針として現実となるよう企てた。彼のもくろみはある程度は成功した。彼はさらに居留地であるケープ(現ケープタウン)を険しい生垣で囲い隣人のコイコイ族を遠ざけた。しかしながら、高度に発達した技術を誇るヨーロッパ人達の緩やかながらも押しとどめることの出来ない膨張によって、その土地に古くから生活するアフリカ人達は次第に辺境へと追いやられていった。異人種間の接触が増加するのはもはや必然だった。土地を奪われた土着のアフリカ人達に残された生活の手段は、雇用や物々交換などでヨーロッパ人に依存するしかなかったからである。
奴隷と有色人種
オランダ人入植者が地元のアフリカ人の奴隷化を禁止していたとはいえ、実際は奴隷の必要性について考慮していた。奴隷は東インド会社やあるいは個人の奴隷商人により売買された。当初、奴隷達はマダガスカル・モザンビーク・アンゴラからケープヘ連れてこられたが、その後、セイロン・マレーシア・インドネシアからもやってきた。アジア人奴隷はおもに家仕事に従事したが、アフリカ系奴隷は荷物の積み下ろしや屋外作業などの重労働に用いられた。
白人の孤立を防ぐために異なる人種・民族間の婚姻をオランダ側が公的に厳しく禁止したにもかかわらず、奴隷とアフリカ黒人の間で婚姻による結束が生じた。これが人種の混血を促し、オランダ人は彼ら混血者を「カラード」aと正式に分類した。
南アフリカにおける社会ピラミッド
南アフリカ社会は、明確なピラミッド型で構成されている。ピラミッドの頂点を占めるのは、裕福な白人の地主・実業家・東インド会社役員である。その次の階層が白人農民である。白人農民の下に位置する層が、カラードと奴隷だった。そして、この多人種・多民族社会のピラミッドの底辺を形成していたのが、ヨーロッパ人によって野蛮な未開人とみなされていた土着のアフリカ人である。
ヨーロッパからやってきたオランダ農民(ボーア)b社会は、白人による支配を支持することで南アフリカにおいて成長していった。しかしながら、同時代のヨーロッパ社会と比較すると、南アフリカの社会構造には「知識階級」と「資本家階級」が欠如していた。また、労働者階級や手工業者階級の発達についても失敗に終わった。このような階級が南アフリカにおいて成長しなかったため、半文盲の小作農達が社会構造の頂点に君臨する支配層を占めるようになった。2したがって、1795年に近代的で対抗意識の強いイギリスが南アフリカにやってきたとき、ボーア達はイギリスと競うにしろ抵抗するにしろほとんど準備ができなかった。
イギリス人の登場と人種摩擦の発生
厳格な法至上主義に裏打ちされたイギリスの方針は、南アフリカ社会の内部にすでにあった人種間摩擦を激化させた。その発端は奴隷とその主人の間に起こった。奴隷制度が暴カによって支えられたということは、隠しようのない事実である。鞭打ちや焼きごて、身体の一部を切断したり万力によって親指を締め上げたりといった拷問は、奴隷をおとなしくさせるために一般的に行われてきた。鞭打ち・絞首刑・火あぶり・荷車の車輪にくくり付けて締め上げるなど奴隷達がその命を落とす極刑さえもありふれたものだった。
苦境に立たされた奴隷達は、その仕返しとして彼らに可能なありとあらゆる手段で主人に抵抗した。彼らにとってもっとも一般的だったのが、逃亡である。大勢の逃亡奴隷は彼らに対して同情的だったアフリカの部族に逃げ込み、奴隷として仕えながら身に着けていったヨーロッパの高い技術や知識を恩人にもたらした。
イギリス人とボーアの間にもまた深刻な摩擦が発生していた。ボーアらは政府や行政当局からの干渉を最小限に抑え徹底した個人主義という社会制度のもと、南アフリカに根をおろしていた。イギリス人はオランダ人が建設した居留地であるケープを植民地として正式にイギリスの拠点とし、ボーアとの絶え間ない抵抗運動に直面していた。イギリスとボーアの対立で最も顕著だったのが人種に関する問題だった。1820年代、イギリスが有色人種の法的権利を少しずつ承認していったため、ついにボーアたちは牛に引かせた荷車にすべてを積み込んで住み慣れた土地を旅立つという決断を下した。cイギリスが有色人種にも法的権利を与えたことにより土着のアフリカ人奴隷がその主人に対して告訴することを可能にしたため、ボーアたちは怒りを爆発させたのである。イギリス側が奴隷身分証を取り上げて解放するにいたり、ボーアの感情はさらに悪化していった。
とどめの一撃は1834年のアメリカにおける奴隷制廃止だった。これ以上イギリス人の干渉や彼らの黒人ぴいきdには耐えられないとボーアたちは悟った。彼らは聖書を携え家畜や荷車とともに歴史的な大移動の旅に出た。1835年、彼らはケープ植民地東部のグラハムスタウンとグラフ・レイネットから出発した。最初に彼らはナタルヘ移住したが、ズールー族の戦士による猛烈な攻撃のみならず再びイギリスからの圧迫をうけた。そこで開拓者達eは勇敢に南アフリカ中央部のトランスヴァールを横断しポチェフストルームにボーア政府を建設し、その後プレトリアヘ移動しそこに定着した。
アンナ・スティーンカンプfの有名な叙述によると、彼女とともに旅をした仲間達の不平不満、彼女が言うところの「奴隷達の自由に関する不公平でけしからん成り行き」について、以下のように述べている。
私達にこんなにも長い距離を旅させることになった奴隷解放よりむしろ彼らがキリスト教徒と対等な立場にいることを不満に思っていた。神の定めに反し人種・信仰の違いを理由に、神に選ばれし優れたキリスト教徒である私達がこのような理不尽に屈するのは我慢のならないことだった。3ズールー族とイギリス
彼らの土地をボーアが通り過ぎていった後も、ズールー族は変わることなく生活を続けていた。彼らは白人に対して毅然とした態度をとることで、民族の誇りを主張していた。19世紀の最後の25年間において、イギリスがナタル植民地を建設しズールー族に対する支配体制を確立したときにも、彼らズールーのイギリスに対する態度は非常に明白だった。
イギリスの悪名高きウォウィックシャイア第2連隊は、ズ一ルー族征服という邪悪な任務を与えられた。1878年1月22目、ウォウィックシャイア第2連隊はイサンダールワナの戦いでズールーの攻撃を受けた。鮮やかな描写で知られるモリスの有名な『The Washing of the Spears』によると、その戦いで1800人以上の英国軍人が戦死しイギリス軍の6つの歩兵中隊がズールー戦士に敗れた。イサンダールワナの戦いは、忘れられない重要なものとして南アフリカ中の黒人達の心に残った。
ナポレオン統治下のフランスを連想させる強力な指導力のもとで固く団結したズールー族は、優れた技術力を誇る白い侵略者たちに勇敢に立ち向かい、南アフリカの黒人達を勇気づけた。イギリス軍は自分達よりも劣っていると蔑んできた原住民の手によって近代的な軍勢に耐え難い敗北を負わせられたのである。4イサンダールワナの戦いの翌年、イギリスは圧倒的な数の軍隊をズールーへの復讐に投入した。優れたズールー戦士たちもついには征服され、偉大なる戦士シャカが50年前に建設したズールーの首都ウルンディは完全に破壊された。しかし、ズールーの誇り高き精神は押しつぶされることはなかった。
アフリカーナー
ズールー族との戦争に加えて、前述の偉大なる大移動の間にボーアがアフリカ人との間に抱えていた対立が、まれに見る歴史的意義をもつ結果を迎えた。ティリアキアンはこの重要な結果についてこう語る。
かつては奴隷だった卑しい使用人達との社会的接触は、ボーアにとって不愉快なものだった。1857年、ケープ教区会議(南アフリカ教会主宰)で、白人信徒と有色人種の信徒を分離するという決議が可決された。カルヴァン派の教義である予定説と神に選ばれし者達のコミュニティーは、黒人達は神の手により排除されるべきだと主張した。黒人達は神に選ばれてはいないというのだ。白人入植者達は黒人が豚の子だと見なしていたのである。ボーア達の望みがイギリスによって打ち砕かれたのち、教会はボーアにとって文化を守る砦の役割を果たした。5ボーアはありがたいことにトランスヴァールを神との約束の地として受け入れてくれた。そうして、彼らはその地を「ニュー・エルサレム」と名づけ定住した。その一方で、ボーアらは自分自身をアフリカーナーとして意識し始めた。彼らアフリカーナーが話すピジンオランダ語(混成オランダ語)は、1925年にアフリカーナーの公用語に採用された。彼らの文化全体がオランダ聖書財団を明らかに反映していた。
ヨハネスバーグのダイヤモンドと黄金
イギリスは1852年のサンドリバー会議においてトランスヴァールの独立を承認した。しかしそれはアフリカーナーにとってつかの間の平穏でしかなかった。イギリスはサンドリバー条約を破棄しトランスヴァールをイギリス植民地の一部に併合したのは、キンバリーでのダイヤモンド発見(1867年)とピルグリムズレストでの黄金発見(1873年)直後の1877年のことだった。
頑ななボーアたちは、彼らにとって聖なる地に他ならない「約束の地」の精神的な防衛という思いからイギリスによるトランスヴァール併合の受諾を拒否した。彼らは1880年〜1881年のボーア独立(第1次ボーア戦争)をめぐる最初の戦いに勝利した。楽々と勝利を得られると考えていたイギリスは、ボーアの強固な守備に驚嘆した。
しかしながら、第2次ボーア戦争(1899〜1902年)にイギリスは圧倒的な数の軍隊を戦場に投入した。それは非常に残忍な戦いで、戦争はボーア兵だけでなくその妻や子どもやその使用人にいたるまで攻撃の対象となった。イギリス人はボーアの農場を破壊し7000人のボーアと20000人のアフリカ人が戦争捕虜として死亡し、アフリカーナーの女性や子ども、土着の農業労働者が狩りたてられ、伝染病地帯の収容キャンプに拘束された。最終的に征服されたボーア達はイギリスの圧勝の前に屈辱的条件に基づくトランスヴァール明け渡しの受諾を余儀なくされた。アリスター・スパークスはこの戦争を「邪悪な世紀における絶頂期」と評した。6
次にトランスヴァールに襲いかかった黄金やダイヤモンドハンターと英国資本家は、その地とそこに住む人々に幅広い変化をもたらすことになった。アフリカの先住民達は勇敢にも部族の土地を守ろうと試みたが、先祖伝来の土地から追われ、鉱山労働者という役割を強制された。男達は鉱山地域へ移動させられたため、彼らの家族はバラバラに引き離された。
労働者キャンプや不法居住者、牧場借用人の居住区は早々に人口が集中しヨハネスバーグという町を形成した。20世紀初頭、ヨハネスバーグは南アフリカで最も人口が多く政治的にも重要な都市に成長した。20世紀のはじめの10年間、ヨハネスバーグは南アフリカにおけるガンディーの偉大な闘争の舞台となり、サチャグラハという思想が形作られたるつぼの役割を果たしたのである。
インド人登場
南アフリカにやってきた最初のインド人達は、イギリスにより契約労働者として第一歩を刻んだ。インド人の契約労働者を導入したイギリス人の目的は、単に人手の不足しているところに労働力を供給することで、特に奴隷制度を廃止したナタルヘ大勢のインド人がやってきた。この計画は1860年〜1911年の51年間継続し、その間に384隻の船が15万2184人の契約労働者をインド南部の港からサハラ砂漠の南へ送り込んだのである。7
イギリス人は、南アフリカにインド人が入植者として定着するとは予期していなかったが、インド人の発展は当初の予測を越えるものだった。彼らは5年間の契約が終了すると自由にインドヘ帰ることができた。しかしながら、帰国の渡航許可を得るためには、付加的な5年間の再契約を結ぶか丸5年におよぶ工業労働に従事しなければならなかった。渡航記録によると、15万2184人の契約労働者のうちインドヘ帰国できたのはほんの3万4001人だけである。残る11万7193人のインド人は、契約期間の切れた自由身分のインド人として南アフリカに定住した。8
南アフリカのインド人社会は急激に成長し、複合的なコミュニティを形成していった。契約労働者と契約を終了したインド人に加え「旅行者」と呼ばれる新たなインド人グループが現れた。彼らはインドから自費で南アフリカへやってきた人々で、商人・金融業者・医者・宗教的指導者・教師・弁護士など専門職に携わるもの達だった。イギリスの貧欲なる植民地主義に破壊されたインドの熟練した大工・職工・鍛冶屋といった職人達が契約労働者に加わっていたことは、予期せぬ事実だった。彼らは5年間の隷属(苦役)という代価を払うことで、よりよい生活や家族のための新天地を手に入れることを夢見ていた。9
南アフリカにおけるインド人の数は増加の一途をたどり、その動きはナタールからケープ植民地、そしてトランスヴァールヘと広がっていった。明らかに未だかつてなかった何かが起こっていた。そしてついに彼らインド人グループは南アフリカの社会ピラミッドに新たな地歩を形成したのである。
ナタールのインド人たち
最もインド人人口が集中したのはナタルだった。ガンディーが南アフリカにやってきた1893年、インド人コミュニティーはナタール総人口における相当な割合を占めるまでになっていた。ナタールの人口は、40万人の先住民と有色人種gと5万人のヨーロッパ人、そして5万1000人のインド人によって形成されていた。インド人人口のうち、1万6000人が契約労働者、3万人が自由民あるいは家事労働者、露天商h、果樹栽培者、商店主、金属細工師、職人、大工、事務員などであった。自由民の一部は教育や勤勉さを理由に教師・公務員・通訳に登用された。そして残る5000人が「旅行者」と呼ばれた貿易商や投機家(山師)と専門職だった。10
ケープ植民地のインド人
ケープ植民地の総人口は非常に多かったが、それに占めるインド人の割合は比較的少なかった。1893年における総人口180万のうち、140万が有色人種と土着のアフリカ人で、およそ1万人がインド人だった。インド人は主に行商人、貿易商、労働者として雇われていた。11
アフリカーナー地域のインド人
トランスヴァールなど南アフリカ中央部に位置するアフリカーナーたちの土地におけるインド人人口は、これらの地域が歴史的にも意義深い土地にもかかわらず比較的小規模だった。1893年、カラードと土着のアフリカ人合わせて約65万人、ヨーロッパ人がおよそ12万人だったのに対し、インド人はわずか5000人程度だった。インド人たちは貿易商・労働者・行商人・ホテルやレストランの調理係やウェイターといった職に従事していた。12
トランスヴァールのインド人達は、その少ない人口からかけ離れた大きな経済力を所有していた。上位200人のインド人貿易商の資産はわかっているだけで10万ポンドにものぼった。なかには国際的な取引を扱う者も存在し、彼らの業績は主にトランスヴァールから得られる利益によって支えられていた。しかしながらトランスヴァールにおける黄金・ダイヤモンドといった鉱山からの利権は、インド人を含む南アフリカのありとあらゆる地域のありとあらゆる人種や階級の手っ取り早く富を手にしたいと願う大勢の欲望によって吸い上げられていた。19世紀の終わりには、トランスヴァールのインド人人口は1万3000人を上回っていた。13
もう一方のアフリカーナー地域であるオレンジ自由国は、インド人達に対して閉ざされていた。総人口約21万人のうち、カラードや先住民が13万人、ヨーロッパ人8万人。1890年までインド人といえば使用人として雇われている少数しか存在せず、インド人経営者の商店が3ヶ所ある程度だった。しかし、1890年にすぺてのインド人の資産が何の保障もなく没収されると、インド人達は無理やりオレンジ自由国から退去させられた。14
トランスヴァールでは疑念と衝突が新しくやってきたインド人と白人支配階級との間に生じた。インド人達は自分達をイギリス人と同等と見なしていた。それはボーアのイギリスに対する反感が自分達に向けられたと考えたからである。それに加えてさらに、インド人達の黒い肌のせいでボーア特有の有色人種に対する偏見による弾圧を受けた。
社会的紛争に加えて、経済競争がトランスヴァール全域に広がった。ボーアの商人や銀行家・ビジネスマンはものすごい数の「アラブ」iの貿易商が彼らの業界を侵すことを恐れていた。その上、土着のアフリカ人が鉱山労働者層に組み込まれ、彼らが新たに重要な市場を形成していた。アフリカーナーは土着のアフリカ人達にたいする商業専売権を独占したかったので、インド人の商売敵は歓迎されていなかった。
しかしながら、インド人達はケープ植民地にもナタルやトランスヴァールやオレンジ自由国にも典型的なインド人特有の勤勉と倹約とともに入植していった。彼らはより良い仕事の機会やより高額な賃金を得ること、そして白い商売敵より多くの預金を貯めるという傾向があった。これが結果的に彼らを追い詰め、白人達の敵意にさらされることになった。
法律による人種排斥
南アフリカ各州の政治家達は、彼らがインド人植民者達に関する立法権を所有していることに対するインド人達の不安や敵意に敏感になっていた。新しく制定された法律や規則は、明らかに契約労働者を除くすべてのインド人を国外へ退去させるという意図を持っていた。これは、ハリー・エスクランペの言葉に顕著に示された。それは1884年、エスクランペのナタール司法長官時代にインド人問題調査委員会における発言である。「この国はヨーロッパ人のものであって、決してアジア人のために用意された大地ではない。」15
1893年、ナタール植民地政府首相に就任したばかりのエスクランペは、反インド人法の制定を高らかに宣言した。
この地のインド人は、地元産業や事業の発達に不可欠な労働力を供給するという目的のために連れてこられたのであって、南アフリカ国家の一翼を担い、国土を構成するものではない。彼らインド人は自らが労働力として連れてこられたことを認識し、植民者や商売上の競争相手として歓迎されていないことを自覚すべきである。16南アフリカの反インド人法は州によって多少異なったが、共通した意図を有していた。すべての契約外インド人を南アフリカから強制的に退去させる、という意図である。ある法律は、契約労働者ではないインド人がインドヘ帰るよう彼らの生活を悲惨で挫折に満ちたものにするために入念に計画されたかのように見える。この種の法律はインド人の選挙権や公道を歩くこと、タクシーに乗ること、午後9時以降の外出を違法とした。別の法律では、インド人の住宅をクーリー地区に限定した。インド人は外出時には常に通行証の携帯を義務付けられ、公式の特別許可書なしに州から州へ旅行することを禁止した。
また、インド人の経済的自立を事実上不可能にするための反インド人法も多数制定された。これらの法律には、人種を根拠に土地所有権や土地の黄金所有権、黄金やダイヤの採掘権を否定するものも含まれていた。さらに、自由身分のインド人に対して毎年3ポンドの人頭税を13歳以上の女子及び16歳以上の男子に課し、その上年間所得を12ポンドに制限した。自由身分のインド人やインド人「旅行者」の貿易は役人による年1回の評価を受ける義務を条件に許可された。しかし、その許可は担当の役人により簡単に取り消され、再発行要請の機会も与えられなかった。
ガンディーと反インド人法
ガンディーは、南アフリカのインド人を人種差別主義者と反インド人法改革のための数々の闘争へと導いた。最も重要な闘争は、1906年に起こしたものである。この運動は、ガンディーの有名な非暴力「サチャグラハ」の哲学が発達し磨きをかけられ、彼自身も国際的に注目を集めた時期に、7年間継続された。1906年8月、植民地政府は新しい法律であるトランスヴァールアジア人修正法令を公表した。新法では、8歳以上のすべてのアジア人に登録を義務付け、両手すべての指紋捺印と通行証の携帯を要求し、通行証の不携帯者には100ポンドの罰金を課した。さらに、警官による家宅捜査と身体検査(訳者注:イスラム教徒の女性を夫以外の男性が触れてはならないという掟を無視した行為である)を拒否することは許されなかった。ガンディーはこの法律を「唾棄すべきもの」17と表現し、インド人社会もガンディーに賛同した。
ガンディー率いる南アフリカの市民運動は、「トランスヴァールヘの大行進」をもって最高潮に達した。その引き金となったのは、1913年3月14日にケープ植民地最高裁判所が出した歴史的な判決である。それは、キリスト教の儀式にのっとったインド人の婚姻のみを合法とするという内容だった。この判決により、キリスト教徒以外のインド人の妻達と子ども達にはもはや南アフリカに住む資格がないことを意味した。さらに、彼らはその夫や父親の死後残されたいかなる財産をも相続することができなくなった。この判決以降、がンディーと彼の協力者達は非暴カ抵抗の活動家を育成し、その中には初めての女性参加者も含むという歴史に残る大きな成果を生んだ。その後、1913年11月と12月の間中、ガンディーは妻とともに女性や子どもを含む大勢のインド人契約労働者を不法ストライキに導き、ナタールからトランスヴァールヘ向かう大行進を決行した。この大行進は自由身分のインド人貿易商や商店主のゼネストをも生じさせた。継続的な報道により、この一大イベントを南アフリカ中の人々だけでなくイギリスやインドの隅々まで伝えられた。
この闘争の最終的な成果は、1914年6月30日インド人救済法が制定されたことである。インド人救済法は、南アフリカにおける法律に基づいた人種差別主義に対する偉大なる勝利である。この法律は、キリスト教徒ではないインド人の婚姻を合法と認め、さらにかつての契約労働者に課せられた税金を取り除き、南アフリカにおける契約労働者制度の廃止を実現した。
1914年7月18日、がンディーはインド独立運動の指導者となり、マハトマと呼ばれ人々から強く尊敬されることになるインドヘと帰国した。彼はサチャグラハの基盤になる自由への闘争を率い、南アフリカにその基礎を築いたのである。
a "ネイティヴ"や"カラード"といった表現は現在では時代遅れだが、本論において歴史的な議論に終止符を打つという重要な意味を持っている。
b "ボーア"(農民)。オランダ人入植者やポルトガル・ドイツ・フランスからの移民の子孫だった。
c "trekgees"="Trekking spirit":開拓者精神/イギリスの厳しい法統制から逃れ自由を求めて新天地を目指すオランダ系入植者集団の旅。(訳者注)
d "kaffirboetie"="Nigger-loving"
e "Vootrekkers"前進する旅人あるいは開拓者。
f 旅の伝説的なリーダー、ピート・レティーフの姪。
g 南アフリカのいたるところにいるかつての奴隷たちは、公式にネイティブと称される土着のアフリカ人から経済的祉会的に不利な立場へ追いやられることを避けるために自らをカラード(有色人種)と自覚し認識するようになった。
h 路上・街頭の物売り。
i アフリカーナーはこの名称を用いた。確かにインド人商人の大半はイスラム教徒だったからである。
障害を乗り越えて
ガンディーは、南アフリカのインド人のために法の下の正義を求める不断の努力を行ったが、南アフリカ黒人のために直接的な行動に出たことはなかった。多くの人々がそのことに疑問を抱く。その答えは、ガンディーの胸の奥に平等主義の精神が存在しなかったからではなく、南アフリカの植民地における法律と社会の構造にこそ、見出すことが出来る。
数々の障害
南アフリカ土着の人々とインド人がカを合わせ、それぞれが直面していた人種差別に抵抗することを妨げる数々の障害が存在していた。
それらの障害の中で最も明らかなものが、南アフリカにおける民族の歩んだ歴史の違いである。南アフリカ土着の人々は、ヨーロッパ人征服者による侵略や先祖代々住み慣れた土地を奪われ追放されるなど、数世紀の長きにわたる犠牲者だった。一方インド人は、ヨーロッパ人によって強制的にまたはやむを得ず祖国を去り、新天地南アフリカにおいて搾取や追放、排斥などの被害者となった。両者は文化、歴史、言語の何一つ共有するものがなかったのである。
また、別の障害は土着のアフリカ人の本質に関する陰湿で狡滑な情報操作である。当初、インド人は白い支配者からこのような偽情報を与えられていた。「黒人の奴らは残酷な隷属と強制的な移動から逃亡してきたアメリカ奴隷の子孫たちにちがいない」1と。
ことによると、インド人とその他の有色人種を隔てる最も恐ろしい障害は、抵抗運動に対する法的根拠の否定かもしれない。ガンディーがその支持者達へ正義をもたらすために行ったすべての努力は、人種差別を支える法制度へ向けられた。南アフリカにおける先住民、有色人種(カラード)、アジア人が、それぞれのグループがもっぱら異なる法規制の下に統治されていた。a これは、トランスヴァールにおけるクーリー地区に顕著に見ることが出来る。これらの障害に見られるように、インド人を強制的に移動させることは、南アフリカに暮らすすべての非契約インド人達の希望を奪うための白人政府による継続的な努力の賜物だった。イギリス植民地政府の先住民に関する公式な方針は、彼らを黄金やダイヤモンドの鉱山事業における発達の原動力に組み込む、というものだった、それは、「鉱山に必要な安価で大量の労働力を再編し組織化するために」トランスヴァールに労働力を「蓄えておく」ということを意味した。2 トランスヴァール及びオレンジ自由国の首相であり、インド人の境遇に幾分同情的だったアルフレッド・ミルナー卿は、1901年、鉱山のための労働カとして永続的に拘束される身分からインド人を免除するために法改正すべきであると主張した。
しかしながら、ミルナー卿の提案は退けられた。それは、鉱山担当長官のワイバ一グとその上司の先住民問題担当長官ラグデンが共同して反対したからである。ワイバ一グによってもたらされた情報を根拠に、ラグデンはインド人に関する現行法のいかなる修正も認めてはいけないとミルナー卿に助言した。ラグデンは、自身の助言をこのように正当化した。「イギリス植民地政府の国際社会に対する姿勢は、イギリスの支配下にあるインド人が自らの権利を主張し、英国国内の外国人社会に対して大々的にアピールするという誤った運動を阻止する必要性を説明することにある」と。ラグデンはインド人と土着のアフリカ人が互いに相手に対して抱いている反感に基づいた、どちらがより多く辛い思いをしているかといった競争意識を妨げることを奨めた。こうして一部の上流階級のインド人を除いて、南アフリカのインド人に対する法規制は継続された。3
隔離と支配
上述の話題が明らかに示すのは、南アフリカのイギリス植民地政府の方針が帝国主義における第一の原則である“隔離と支配''に基づいて描かれていたということである。第1次ボーア戦争のなか、有色人種グループを互いに分離させておくために計画された法的政治的障壁の構築のために、この原則が全般的に執行された。
南アフリカのインド人と元からそこに住んでいたアフリカ人に対する法的障壁の有効性が弱まりはじめたとき、イギリスは様々な有色人種グループの間に(他のグループに対する)優越と劣等という錯覚を植えつけるという心理的障壁を助長させるという巧妙な手段に訴えた。この障壁に挑んだのが、地元のアフリカ人グループで最も重要な指導者であるドクター・アブドゥラ・アブドゥラーマンだった。彼は政府のこの企てを人種により隔離された人々を「完全なる孤立へと追い込む」(それぞれの人種を孤立させるという目的)ものであると非難した。さらに、様々な有色人種グループの法的根拠の共有を否定することに加えて、政府は彼らに人種による隔離を奨励することで、彼らを精神的に引き離すことに努めたと、アブドゥラーマンは指摘した。彼は政府の企てを人種における優越という悪意ある魅力的な誘惑であるとし、心理的罠に陥ってはならないと警告を発した。
イギリス政府はマレー人に対し他の野蛮なアジア人と違った待遇をする」と言い、カラードに対して「白人と同等の地位を得られるだろう」と約束した。貧しい人々に彼らが白人であるかのように道を歩かせたり、他の人々よりも優れているかのように騙し、彼らを欺いた。4
ガンディー、南アフリカ以前
1888年から1891年にかけてガンディーはロンドンに住んでいた。ロンドン滞在の第一の目的は法律の勉強だった。滞在中、法律の勉強とともに彼は新約聖書の“山上の説教"bにあるイエスの教えや"バガバッドキーター"C"マヌ法典''dから見出した人類平等の思想を熱心に吸収していった。彼は「真に高潔なる者はすべての人々が平等であることを知る」5というマヌ法典の詩の一節に深い感銘を受けた。
ロンドンからインドヘ帰国したのち、ガンディーは異なるカーストの者との同席を禁ずるバイシャ層の規則にあっさりと何の気なしに背いた。ポンペイに住んでいる間(1891年〜1892年)、ガンディは料理を楽しみ自身の菜食主義にふさわしい食事を改良する実験に励むとともに、彼の使用人と台所仕事だけでなく楽しい食事のひとときを共に過ごした。6ファティマ・ミーアは、この点を慎重に考察すれば、「ガンディーは早くからカーストを拒否した人物で、彼が人種差別主義者であったことなど決してないことは明らかである」7と断言する。
インド、カーストと肌の色
ガンディーはカーストを直接的または陰ながら拒絶したのだろうか、ミーアが示唆するように、人種的隔離の制度を拒絶したのだろうか。インドのカースト制度に結び付けられ複雑に絡みあった人種の違いと杜会的分離の関係にその答えはある。
カースト制度の始まりは、紀元前2000年頃半遊牧民のアーリア人eのインド侵入により定着した。たとえ侵略者が混じり気のない純粋な白人ではなかったとしても、ドイツのナチスやアメリカの白人至上主義者などアーリア人の純血を支持する人々は、考古学的研究によってアーリア人が実際に「比較的色白金髪で主として面長」8の民族だったと主張する。
アーリア人侵略者のなかの信心深い人々が、彼らの宗教的心情を印象的な韻文で表現した。彼らはのちのインドにおける宗教的思考と社会構造に大きな影響を与えた。アーリア人が侵入した頃、リグ・ヴェーダという名称で知られるインドの宗教的な詩集の主要部分はすでに多くの作品によって形成され始めていた。アーリア人征服者がそれを編集し彼ら自身によるいくつかの作品を加えて、リグ・ヴェーダ全体の原作者がアーリア人であると主張した。
アーリア人宗教詩の集大成としてのヴェーダの完成が、アーリア人始祖による民族起源に関する独自の解釈をそこに付け加えたことで後世にまで及ぶ最大の貢献を残した。アーリア人神話によると、彼らの始祖である最初の人物がヴァルナと呼ばれる4人の人間に分裂した。そして、4人のヴァルナが僧侶(バラモン)・武士(クシャトリヤ)・平民(ヴァイシャ)・奴隷(シュードラ)という社会における4つの階層それぞれの祖を敬いなさいと語った。アーリア人のインド定住からうかがえるように、アーリアの詩人がバラモン僧となった。こうして4つの階層に分化した社会は、今日でもなおヒンドゥー教の神々が定めた宗教的基礎となる教えだと考えられている。9
残念なことにサンスクリット語本来の意味における各ヴァルナの区分は、ヨーロッパ人によって常に誤訳された。こうした誤訳は、ポルトガル人から始まった。バスコ・ダ・ガマとその仲間達がインドにやってきた1498年、彼らはインド滞在期間中行っていた観察記録において、インドの分割され定着した社会構造をポルトガル語の「カスタ」という単語を用いて表現した。この単語がのちに同様の意味をもつ英語の「カースト」に翻訳された。しかしこの単語は社会という意味を示すだけであり、人種による分離という意味は含まない。その点についてバシャーンははっきりとこう述べている。
サンスクリット語でヴァルナは色を意味し、それ自体が彼らの起源であるいにしえのアーリア民族における階級構造が肌の色の異なる人々や異質な文化との接触によって発展してきたことを表している。ヴァルナという言葉は「身分制度」を指すものではなく、「役割」という意味も持たない。10ヴェーダ時代f 後期、階級構造はより厳格なものに成長した。その頃、アーリア人支配階級は肌の黒い大衆に対する優位を確固たるものとし自分達の繁栄を謳歌した。民族における階層分離は固定され、「アーリア人侵略以前からインドに住んでいた肌の黒い人々は、わずかな権利と数多くの障害を持った奴隷としてアーリア人社会における最下層に自らの居場所を見出した。」11
植民地時代、インド社会における4つの身分制度はそれぞれの階層を取り巻く経済的・政治的な力関係によりさらなる具体化が進んだ。しかし、人種による社会構造の意義は本来、インド人の精神を押しつぶし消し去ろうとするものではなかった。一般的には、肌の色が黒いほどそのカーストも低いものになった。
したがって、カーストによる差別を無視しようとする者は、そのほとんどが確実にポストの異なる人々からも同じカーストの人々からも無視された。だから、ガンディーが彼の使用人と食事を共にするという行為には、インド社会における人種関係において重要な意義があった。
障害を突き破る
ガンディーが南アフリカで活動していた間、彼はインド人を他の有色人種から遠ざけていた様々な壁を着々と克服していった。その過程において、彼は南アフリカの人々を正義を実現するための闘争に次第に巻き込んでいった。この闘争はガンディーの南アフリカでの生活における4つの出来事を鮮やかに浮き彫りにした。4つの出来事とはトラピスト修道会の修道院訪問、レヴ・ジョン・ドゥペとの交流、ズールー戦争、ドクター・アブドゥラ・アブドゥラーマンとの関係である。
トラピスト修道院
ガンディーが平等主義思想の持ち主であるという明らかな証拠が、彼と地元の人々との最初の接触の記録に残されている。それは1895年、パインタウンのマリアンヒルにあるトラピスト修道会の修道院を訪れたときのことである。清潔な生活環境、キリストヘの祈りにささげた生活、厳格な菜食主義、勤勉と平等がドイツ人宣教師と土地の人々である入居者の間に見出すことができ、ガンディーは深い感銘を受けた。
パインタウン訪問の後、ガンディーは修道院の菜食主義に関する記事を書いている。その記事は始めから終わりまで修道士や修道女が生活を共にする地元民に向けた尊敬に溢れる態度について述べられていた。以下はその記事の一部である。
彼らは肌の色で差別してはならないということを確信している。その修道院の地元民達は、白人と同様の扱いを受けている。彼らは修道士(及び修道女)と同じ食事を与えられ同じ服を身に着けている。その集落には鍛冶屋・ブリキ加工・大工・靴屋・なめし皮加工など様々な作業場があった。そこで地元の人々がこれらすべての有用な技術を英語に加えズールー語も用いて指導を受けていた。その多くがドイツ人である修道士や修道女の素晴らしさが最も顕著に表れているのは、彼らが地元民達にドイツ人化教育を決して試みず彼らと肩を並べて生活をしていた点である。12修道院への訪問はガンディーが初めて南アフリカに上陸してから2年後のことだった。記録によると南アフリカ滞在期間のごく初期の出来事であったにもかかわらず、彼はズールー族の隣人達を気にかけ彼らの言語や文化を尊重し平等に扱っていた。
ジョン ドゥベ
ガンディーの最も有名なアシュラム(ヒンドゥー教の修行所)であるフェニックス・セツルメントは、1904年11月、ダーバン近郊に建設された。そこでは菜食主義的な素朴な生活を実践するかたわら、ガンディーが創刊した新聞「インディアン・オピニオン」を発行し非暴力抵抗を人々に訓練する場でもあった。土着のアフリカ人のための共同体兼学校のオーレンジ学院は、フェニックス・セツルメントからおよそ1マイルのところにあった。オーレンジ学院はアフリカ人向けの新聞「イランガ・ラセ・ナタール」の発行人で編集者でもあったジョン・ランガリバレレ・ドゥベによって、フェニックス・セツルメントより1年早く設立された。
ドゥベはアメリカで教育を修め、アメリカにおける黒人教育者のパイオニアだったブッカー・T・ワシントンの影響を受けていた。ナタールヘ戻った彼は、ワシントンが農場奴隷から解放された人々のためにアラバマ州タスキーギに設立したタスキーギ師範産業学院を手本にオーレンジ学院を創設した。
ドゥベとガンディーは互いに尊敬しあう友人同士gになった。1905年、エジコンベ山にある白人人道主義者のマーシャル・キャンベル邸で開かれた科学進歩を目指す英国人連合の毎年恒例の会議に二人揃って出席した。その集会で行ったスピーチでドゥベは「このナタルに古くから住むアフリカ人達から彼らが生まれ育った土地や彼らの権利を奪うことは、彼らを居心地の良い家の中から無理やり追い払うことを意味する」と述べた。「アフリカ人なくして白人達はほんの少しの間も立ち行かなくなる」ということを忘れないで欲しいと、ドゥベは集会の出席者らに頼んだ。ガンディーはドゥベのスピーチに感銘を受け、「このドゥベ氏は記憶にとどめておくべき黒人である」とインディアン・オピニオンに書いている。13
数ヵ月後、ガンディーはドゥベの業績についてこう記述している。「彼はフェニックスの近くに所有する300エーカー以上の土地で、仲間達に教育を与え様々な商売や手工業を指導し、生活の術を訓練している。」14ガンディーとドゥベの関係について研究しているE・S・レディは彼らについてこのように書いている。
フェニックス・セツルメントとオーレンジ学院の間にはたびたび交流があった。ズールー達と白人達は、フェニックスでガンディーが開く祈りの会に出席した。ガンディーがインド人とズールーの子ども達と一緒になって遊ぶ姿もしばしば目撃された。15
バンバータのズールー戦争
1906年2月、ナタール植民地政府は財源不足を補うためにズールー族へ異例の人頭税を課すことにした。
ズールー族は課税を拒否し、徴税のために派遣された2名の英国軍人を殺害した。その報復にナタール政府はズールーの族長だったバンバータを退け、イギリスに従順なアフリカ人を新しい族長の座においた。そして、イギリスは12名のズールーの男達をカノン砲と対面する格好で整列させると、一発の砲撃で彼らは細かい肉片に変えてしまつた。ガンデイーは12人のズールーへ哀悼の意を事件から数日後のインディアンオピニオンに寄せている。
大英帝国は後退を余儀なくされた。ナタールに住む先住民は人頭税に抵抗するため反乱の峰火をあげた。ハント軍曹及びアームストロング軍曹は反乱の犠牲となり、この2名の英国軍人のためにさらに12人もの生命が奪われてしまった。16バンバータとその部下達は新しい族長の身柄を丘陵地帯に拘束した。イギリスは彼らを捕らえようとしたが、当初、追跡者達は失敗の連続だった。ガンディーはこれをイギリス人の行いに対する天罰だと見なした。
しかしながら神は、族長の座を追われその後釜に座った者を誘拐したバンバータを追跡する軍隊にかの12名の生命を奪った者が所属する部隊も加わったとき、哀れな12名の味方として現れるだろう。バンバータとその部下は追っ手に包囲されてもなお勇敢に戦うだろうが、最後には敗れるだろう。12人のアフリカ人の生命を奪った者も道連れにして。これぞまさしく神の裁きなのだ。17イギリスは迅速な対応により反乱を制圧した。強力な軍隊が反乱を鎮め、バンバータを捕らえた。ガンディーは英国軍側に立って担架を担ぐ部隊を募り、24人の男性を集めた。ガンディーを含む4人のグジャラート人とパターン人(パキスタン北西部〜アフガニスタン南東部に居住)1名とかつて契約労働者だった南インドの人々である。ガンディーと仲間達は人類平等の精神にしたがって傷付いたズールーの戦争捕虜を手当てする仕事を引き受けた。彼らは主任軍医のサヴェッジ医師の下で働いた。サヴェッジ指揮下の白人衛生兵達は、ズールーの戦争捕虜の手当てを拒否していた。捕らわれのズールー達のなかには、銃撃による負傷やスパイ容疑の尋問中にひどく鞭打たれた者もいた。手当てもされずに放置された傷は腐敗しはじめていた。ガンディーはこう自伝に記している。
サヴェッジ医師は私達の到着を、この罪のない人々のために神がつかわしてくださったものと歓迎し、彼は包帯や消毒液などの品々で私達の装備を整えてくれた。ズールー族の人々は私達の到着に大喜びしてくれた。白人兵達は捕らわれのズールー達を隔てている檻の隙間から彼らの様子を覗きながら、私達に彼らの看護を思いとどまらせようとした。さらに、私達が彼らの助言に耳を貸さなかったので白人達は怒り出し、言葉で言い表せないほどひどい罵声をズールー達に浴びせかけた。18戦争が終わると、ガンディーと仲間達は負傷したズールー達を戦場から運び出した。ガンディーは故郷に帰る長い長い旅路の間、彼が経験したばかりの異人種に対する偏見や大虐殺について重苦しい心痛とともに深く考えさせられた。
ズールー族の反乱は、真新しい経験にあふれ、私が闘い抜くために必要な心の糧を与えてくれた。ボーア戦争はこの反乱のように鮮明に戦争の恐怖を抱かせ私に帰国を考えさせはしなかった。今回の戦いは戦争ではなく、人間狩りだった。毎朝、ライフルの銃声がクラッカーの破裂音のように空気を切り裂いて何の罪もない人々が暮らす小さな村に鳴り響くのを聞く、このような状況下で生活することは私にとって大きな試練だった。しかし、私はこうした苦い思いを押さえ込み、負傷したズールーの人々を看病するために集められた部隊で働いた。私は傷の手当てもされずないがしろにされていたズールー達を目の当たりにした。だから私達に与えられたこの任務は、私が彼らに対して抱いた良心の呵責をほんの少し和らげてくれた。19
アブドゥラ・アブドゥラーマン
1909年6月、イギリスは南アフリカ連邦の形成に向けて急速に動き始めた。この行動はケープ植民地、ナタール、トランスヴァール、オレンジ自由州といつた既存の4つの植民地を一つの中央政府に統合し、共和国としてイギリス本国の支配力の下に置くためのもので、アフリカーナーたっての希望により行政府をプレトリアに設置したが、立法府はイギリス側をなだめるためにケープタウンに置かれた。
ガンディーはこの新たな動きを「敵軍同盟」20と表現した。インド人指導者達もガンディーを支持し、彼と人望厚いイスラム教徒でビジネスマンのハジ・ハビブを南アフリカ在住インド人の代弁者としてロンドンヘ派遣した。彼らの使命は、トランスヴァールの反インド人法の様々な人種差別的障壁が新連邦において全国的な共通認識として認知されないようロビー活動を展開することだった。
彼らはロンドン訪問最大の目的を果たすことはできなかった。人種差別という障壁は新政府の方針にしっかりと植えつけられていた。しかしながらその一方で、ガンディーはこの旅で重要な知己を得た。アフリカ人政治団体の代表であるアブドゥラ・アブドゥラーマン博士である。アブドゥラーマンは、新政府におけるアフリカ人問題についてロビー活動を行うためにロンドンを訪れていた。ガンディーとハビブはロンドン往きの船でアブドゥラーマンと一緒になり、偶然にも帰りの船でも彼と乗り合わせた。この奇跡的な出会いにより、3人は情報を交換し合い互いに協力を約束した。
南アフリカに戻ると、この友情はフェニックス・セツルメントとドゥベのオーレンジ学院の間に結ばれた絆に加えて、インド人とアフリカ人をつなぐ新たな架け橋となった。アブドゥラーマン博士の無事帰国を祝う集会が11月30目にケープタウンで催され、ハビブとともに招待を受けたガンディーはスピーチを依頼された。こうした集会で演説することは大変危険だったが、人種平等主義の信念を明確に表明するという危険な賭に挑むことのできる人物は、ガンディーをおいて他にいなかっただろう。その日、1909年11月30目は、おそらく南アフリカに暮らすインド人と地元のアフリカ人たちが政治的意義をもった運動に共に参加した最初の日である。
そして30年が過ぎて、アフリカ人のなかからネルソン・マンデラが、インド人のなかからI・C・ミーアが立ち上がり共に人種平等の実現のために闘い、南アフリカ自由憲章を一緒に作成し、政治犯として共に投獄されながらも「平等な国民、平等な兄弟」21としての正義と自由を実現するために手を取り合って抵抗し闘った。しかしこうした団結は、ガンディー、ハビブ、ドゥベ、アブドゥラーマンといった人種差別撤廃運動のパイオニア達の努力があったからこそ実現したのである。
a インド人と中国人、両者は元々契約労働者として南アフリカに連れてこられ、「アジア系」法規制と行政機関によって統治された。
b マタイによる福音書5〜7章
c ヒンドゥー教の聖典
d ユダヤ教においてモーゼが戒律をもたらしたように、ヒンドゥー教における戒律の導入者であるマヌが編集した法律集
e 現在,中央ヨーロッパ及び中東で知られる地域からやってきた民族
f 紀元前1000年〜紀元前700年頃
g ガンディーとドゥベにはいくつかの重要な共通点がある。ガンディーのNIC(ナタル・インド人会議)設立が1894年、ドゥベがナタール先住民会議を設立したのが1900年である。英語とズールー語による週刊誌「イランガ・ラセ・ナタール」を創刊したのが1903年、ガンディーが「インディアン・オピニオン」を創刊したのはそのわずか半年前のことである。さらに、ガンディーが南アフリカに住む全てのインド人のために活動を指導していた頃、ドゥベは南アフリカ初の全国的なアフリカ人組織であるアフリカ人民族会議の議長に就任した。この組織は1912年にオーレンジ学院で結成された。なお、オーレンジ学院は1994年に南アフリカ最初の民主的選挙の際に投票所となった場所でもあり、大統領に立侯補し見事勝利を収めたネルソン・マンデラもそこで投票を行った。
ニュータウン隔離地区
ハッテンバックやデュトワらは、ニュータウン隔離地区における「カフィア(黒人の蔑称)とインド人の混在」という南アフリカ時代のガンディーの言葉から彼が人種差別主義者だったとほのめかした。しかし、その表現が人種差別主義を意味するものではないということは、以下に述べる当時の隔離地区がおかれた状況についてヨハネスハーグ市当局とガンディーの間で交わされた手紙がもつ真の歴史的背景を読めば明らかになるだろう。
ポーターへの手紙
ガンディーはインド人の隣人として土着のアフリカ人を居住させないよう異議申し立てをしていた。これは、隔離地区における人口増加がすでに危険なまでに進み、混沌を極めていたからである。ハッテンバックの引用は、ガンディーがヨハネスバーグ市当局の保険医療担当官のポーター医師へ宛てた手紙からのものである。この手紙は、ヨハネスバーグ市のニュータウン隔離地区におけるアフリカ黒人入居者の大量流入を原因とした急激な人口増加について書かれている。これは5年間に渡る論争の間にしたためられた何通もの手紙のなかの、後期にしたためられた一通である。
ガンディーが初めてニュータウン隔離地区を訪れたのは、1899年のことである。彼はそのあまりにも高い人口密度や非衛生的な環境を目の当たりにして、思わずぞっとしたという。彼は人口の増加に合わせて居住地区の拡張や道路・街灯・水道の可能な限りの整備、ネズミの駆除といった公衆衛生についてほとんど何の対策もなされていない深刻な状況を指摘し、これを即刻改善するよう市当局へ抗議の手紙を送った。1彼の訴えは、まったくの失敗に終わったけれど、彼がインドヘ帰国する1901年まで続けられた。
1902年にガンディーが南アフリカに戻ると、彼はトランスヴァールを本拠地に新たに結成された英国インド人協会(BIA)の代表になった。彼は隔離地区、とりわけニュータウンにおける衛生面の改善をヨハネスバーグ市当局に対してBIAを代表して強く要求した。市は1903年に医療調査チームに状況調査を委任することでガンディーの要請に応じた。当時、オレンジ自由州及びトランスヴァール知事だったミルナー卿もチームの一員だった。彼は危険なほど「非衛生的」な隔離地区に住み、状況を改善するために必要な法律の制定を主張した。しかし、他のメンバーは知事の要求を「ヒステリック」2であるとして退けた。ゆえに市は相変わらず隔離地区の状況に対して無関心で何ら対策を講じないままだった。
その上、すでに人で溢れかえっていたニュータウン隔離地区へさらに大勢の土着のアフリカ人が大挙して入居してくるなかで、アフリカ人のみならずインド人の健康状態についても明らかに無関心だった。この状況に不安を覚えたガンディーは、1902年2月11目必死の嘆願書を医療担当官のポーターに送りつけている。その手紙では、「インド人居住区の信じ難い状況」を幾度も繰り返し訴え、ポーターに「もしもこの現状が継続するのなら、何らかの伝染病が爆発的に流行する」と警告した。ガンディーはポーターに隔離地区を訪れてその状況を彼自身の目で確かめるよう執拗に要求した。3
ガンディーの願い通り、ポーターは隔離地区に足を運んだが、市当局は改善に必要な処置も実施可能な対策も講じないという姿勢を続けた。その対応にガンディーは絶望しながらも、2月15日に手紙を送った。その手紙で彼はポーターのニュータウン訪問に対して感謝の意を伝えてはいるものの、しかし、当局が何一つ環境改善に動こうとはしなかったことを非難した。
もし議会が聞く耳を持たないのなら、それは彼らが自身の役割を放棄したことを意味する。私には残された時間を無駄に失うことでヨハネスバーグに予測される大災害の発生を早めているだけのあなた方が理解できない。今数百ポンドの金をかけるだけで、もしも不幸にも伝染病が隔離地区で大流行したときの大混乱と病気治療のために湯水のように注ぎ込まれるだろう数千ポンドもの大金を完全に節約できるだろう。このようにカフィアとインド人を共生させることについて、正直に言って私はこれがインド人住民にとって不公平であり、我々インド人特有の忍耐強さを持ってしてもこれは過度に不当な扱いであると強く感じている。4この手紙は、肌の色によって特別な居住区に隔離された人々に対して影響をもたらす返答を得ることはなかった。市当局の無反応・無関心という状況が支配的ななかで、ガンディーはそれがいかなる人種であろうとも新しい入居者の流入に抗議し続けた。
疫病
ガンディーが手紙で警告していた悲劇は現実のものとなった。先の手紙から36日後の3月19目、ニュータウン隔離地区で肺の伝染病(肺ペスト)が爆発的に発生したのである。ヨハネスバーグ市全体を脅かす危機に直面した市当局は、迅速かつ効果的に伝染病終息にむけて動いた。しかしながら当局が乗り出すまでに、すでに120人が感染し86人が死亡した。さらにニュータウン全住民が特別列車で感染地域から離れた安全な地域に建設された急ごしらえのテント村に移送された。住民達の所持品とともにニュータウン隔離地域は焼き払われ、死んだネズミの調査が行われた。衛生上の予防措置としてネズミの死骸が発見された市の市場も取り壊された。こうして現実となった疫病の大流行により、市はかなりの損害を被ったのである。ガンディーの手紙による予言は的中したのである。
この悲劇的なエピソードから、あるいはこの事態を警告し続けた手紙から、人種的偏見の痕跡をインド人の側から見つけ出すことはできない。けれど白人政府は、ガンディーが後に記したとおり、有色人種の健康に関しては相変わらず無関心な居眠り状態だったが「白人市民の健康に限っては完全に目覚めた状態だった」5
人種差別、その根源
1893年6月7日夜、ガンディーが南アフリカに上陸して2週間後のこの日、彼はプレトリアヘ向けてダーバン駅を出発する国営鉄道の汽車に乗車した。彼は一等車室に乗っていた。午後9時頃、汽車はナタール州都のピーターマリッツバーグに到着した。そこで一人の白人が一等車室に乗っている非白人乗客に気がつき、警官を呼んだ。警官はガンディーに貨物列車へ移動するよう命令したが、彼はこれを拒否したために汽車から放り出されてしまった。
身を切るような冷たい風が、屈辱に打ち震えるガンディーの座っている暗い駅のプラットホームを吹き抜けていた。彼のオーバーコートが入った旅行鞄は駅長のもとにあった。しかしこれ以上の侮辱を恐れたため、彼はコートのありかを尋ねようとはせずに寒さと屈辱に震えながら、冬の長い夜を一人ホームにて今後の身の振り方について考え込んでいた。やがて夜が明けようとする頃に、ガンディーはついに意を決した。
私が受けた耐え難い屈辱は、肌の色に対する偏見という根深い病根の単なる兆候にすぎず氷山の一角でしかない。もしも可能なら、いかなる困難がその途上で待ち受けていようとも、私はこの病の根絶に挑もう。異なる肌の色への偏見を失くすために必要なあらゆる場面において、私は不正を正すことを追及しなければならない。6晩年、キリスト教宣教師ジョン・モットとの対談で、ガンディーはその時の屈辱を彼の人生のなかで「最も創造的な経験」7だったと語っている。冬の夜を駅で過ごした日から21年間、ガンディーは南アフリカで人種差別の非人道的な社会構造に明確に焦点を絞り、彼が語ったようにその根源を絶つことに尽力した。文字通り、ガンディーは人種差別撤廃に集中し続けた。それは彼自身の倫理観がいかなる人種的偏見も見過ごすことを許さなかった。
(文末注につきましては省略。英文を参照ください。)
(次の論文「クリストファー・コロンブスの500年の遺産とニューヨリカン」は、印刷する際の便宜を考え、
30行ほど下にあります。)
Nuyoricans and the 500-Year Legacy of Christopher Columbus
INTRODUCTION
For five centuries, four of which were under the rule of Spain and one under the United States, Puerto Rico has been exploited for use as the key to military control of the Caribbean. Recently, Puerto Rico's beach areas are being exploited for resort development, mainly by North American and multinational capital. Also U. S. citizenship and cheap air fares have facilitated a unique cyclical pattern of movement of Puerto Ricans between North America and the insular provinces. The largest . Puerto Rlcan community in North Amenca is in the barrio of New York City's East Harlem. There they call themselves Nuyoricans and keep their Antillean culture and language alive through lively ties to the insular homelands. Their mother tongue, Puerto Rican Spanish, is recognized by linguists as a language in its own right. But there is great resistance by the dominant culture in North America against bilingual education. Also, even where bilingual education is practiced, Puerto Rican Spanish is.typically assigned the status of an "inferior dialect" of the Castilian. This has resulted in confusing the Nuyoricans concerning their identity and hindering their potential contribution to the total life of the Americas, North America in particular. These problems are intricately linked to issues of military and economic exploitation of the insular Commonwealth of Puerto Rico by North America, as well as to issues of militarism, jingoist patriotism and racism in North America itself.
EUROPE AND THE CARIBBEAN
15th Century Genoa. Trading for Gold
The crew mernbers of the Spanish ships Nina. Pinta and Santa Marifa, which sailed into the Caribbean in 1492, were the first recorded Europeans to enter the New World. However, Lord Christopher Columbus, Admiral of the King of Spain, captain of the flagship Santa Maria, the man who settled the first Spanish colony on the island of Espanola and the man who established the pattern for four centuries of Spanish rule, was not himself a Spaniard. He was Christoforo Colombo, native of the Italian city state Genoa. Accordingly, this essay begins with a very brief introduction to his native background.
Fifteenth century Genoa was "a lively, turbulent place, its atmosphere harsh but stimulating." And its citizens were "stubborn, acquisitive ... truly cosmopolitan people" who often married abroad, learned the languages of, and created commercial enterprises in lands far beyond their own boundries, such places as Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Greece and Africa.1 The main object of all trade was the acquisition of gold. The people were said to be willing to take goods of trade "to the ends of the earth" in order to convert thern to gold. For the Genoese of the 15th century, gold was "the ultimate store of wealth."2
Christopher Columbus. Gold-Seeking Cruseder
In 1476, five vessels set sail on an ill-fated voyage from Genoa intended for England. Young Christopher Columbus, who had recently left the wool carding trade for life at sea, was aboard one of the ships. However, the voyage was not completed, and the events that followed inextricably linked Columbus to adventures which "shook the earth, moved the round world, made the depths shudder, and turned creation upside down."3 Pirates attacked the convoy on the Atlantic side qf the Gibraltar Strait. Most of the Genoese sailors perished; but a few, Columbus among them, survived and swam to the Portuguese shore.
Columbus came ashore near the Portugucse town of Lagos and then made his way to Lisbon. There he set about improving his economic and social standings. He enriched himself by trading among his fellow Genoese countrymen. Then he gained access to the court by marriage into a poor but noble family.
Because he was both an ambitious trader, aind a devout,Catholic, Columbus was doubly disturbed, both by the Arab control of the eastern trade routes to the Orient and by their possession of the Holy City, Jerusalem. He wrote, "Anyone who has [gold] can do whatever he likes in the world, even bring souls into paradise."4 He came to think of himself as a late-coming crusader. He became preoccupied with the notion that it was necessary to find a new route to the Orient in order to "finance the reconquest of Jerusalem."5
The "Sea of Darkness"
Arab interruption of the eastern routes to the Orient naturally caused Portuguese merchants to look for an alternative westward one. But most of them held an age-old fear of the Atlantic Ocean. That fear had been described in the 12th century by a famous Arab geographer. Al-Idrisi: "No one knows what is in that sea, because of many obstacles to navigation - profound darkness, high waves, frequent storms, innumerable monsters which people it, and violent winds. No sailor dares to penetrate it; they limit themselves to sailing along the coasts wlthout losing slght of land."5 Even as late as the 15th century, the Portuguese still called the Atlantic by its Arab name, "Sea of Darkness."6
On the other hand, there were also Portuguese who believed that the earth was round and that the Atlantic route was possible.7 Prominent among them was Prince Henry the Navigator, whose arguments greatly influenced Columbus.8 Also, Columbus discovered a letter among some of his late father-in-law's papers which had been written in 1474 by the eminent Florentine geographer Paolo dal Toscanelli to Portugal's King John. Toscanelli had advised the King to try the western route to Asia, stating that it will be "shorter than the one you are pursumg by way of Gumea."9 Wasserman writes in regard to the decisive impact of that letter on Columbus:
"[The] idea of reaching the East by sailing west acquired all the force of an obsession. A figure of transition from the dying Middle Ages to the world of capitalism and science, a curidus combination of mystic and practical man, Columbus became convinced that God himself had revealed to him 'it was feasible to sail from here to the Indies, and placed in me a burning desire to carry out this plan."'10Columbus and La Isabela
Columbus tried to convince the Portuguese crown to finance his plan. Rebuffed by King John II, he removed to Spain where, with the help of a Spanish monk, he was able to convince Spain's Queen Isabela to finance his plan. Thus, as a Spanish Admiral, he made four westward voyages.
Even though he actually sailed to the Caribbean, Columbus always maintained that he had reached the Orient. On his first voyage in 1492, he established provisional Spanish rule in a rude settlement he named La Navidad on Espanola (Hispaniola). On his second voyage in 1493, he established La Isabela, the first European town in the New World, on a "well -situated rock" facing a lovely bay on the island's northwest shore.11 He thought that rock marked "the end of the East." Also, he insisted that Cuba was Chipangu (Japan) and the coast of South America the Asian mainland. And to silence any who disagreed, "he made his officers and crew take solemn oath,' on pain of a hundred lashes and having the tongue slit if they ever gainsaid the same ''''12And he died "still gripped by his great illusion.''13 In his diary he had written, "I presented , [to Spain] the Indies, " and in his will, "I say presented, because it is evident that by the will of God, our Sovereign, I gave them, as a thing that was mine."I4
Nyyoricans
The descendents of the Taino, the native Caribbean people, would remember and preserve in their folk tales, poems, songs, and dances their deep protest that what was "prsented" to the Spanish monarchs had been rightfully theirs. They would harbor the realization down through the generations that all that had finally been left to them of their lands, their customs and culture, their language, even their racial complexions, had been cruelly, absolutely and irreversibly altered. Yet, despite the incredible scope of this cultural annihilation, the Caribbean people have molded remarkably unique,creative and durable cultures from the remnants.
Many people from those remnant Caribbean societies have migrated to the United States in recent decades. This is particularly true of Puerto Ricans. For them, U. S. citizenship and low-cost air fares have helped in maintaining an unusual revolving door pattern of migration back-and-forth between North America and the islands. Accurate census data is hard to determine. But it has been reliably estimated that the insular population is about 31/2million, with 11/2 million in North America at any given time.15
The majority of Puerto Ricans living in North America live in the barrio of East Harlem. They call themselves Nuyoricans. They are constantly confronted by a dominant culture which is marked by a deep-seated, racist rejection. They are rejected because they are, to use Theodore Roosevelt's jingoism, "hyphenated Amencans. " Their language is also rejected. Spanish in general is rejected as "not being American" or "not being patriotic." Furthermore, Puerto Rican Spanish is generally relegated to the status of an "inferior dialect" of the Castilian. Yet, in spite of this pressure, and unlike other immigrant groups who preceded them, Nuyoricans have tended not to assimilate into the general society. Rather, they hold on to their strong ties with the homeland; they continue to maintain their own Puerto Rican culture and language.16
PUERTO RICO IN SPANISH COLONIAL CARIBBEAN
Half-Man. Half-Beast
In ceaseless searches for gold, Columbus and his men often rode in full armor among the natives of the lands they discovered. These people, whorn Columbus had labeled "Indians," had never before seen horses and initially mistook the mounted men as half-man and half-beast. The invaders took full advantage of the terror of the natives and mounted those grand marches in order to convince them that the Europeans "were mighty enough to attack and hurt them."I7
And Columbus was indeed unsparing in attacking and injuring the native people. Even the crown became alarmed at reports of excessive cruelty in the Indies and in 1500 a party was sent from Spain to investigate. As a result, Columbus was arrested and returned to Spain in chains. Even though his title of admiral was eventually restored, and he even made one more voyage, he never really regained the confidence of the crown. He died on May 20, 1506, a very rich but bitter man. Among the people he had made his captives he left a legacy of "distrust, subjugation and bloodshed."18
Columbus had conquered the legendary Sea of Darkness, and in doing so had established Spanish rule over the eastern coast of South America, Cuba and Hispaniola, and the adjacent islands of the Antilles. But in the process he had also unleashed upon the region the darkest human impulses of greed and savagery. Even though he passed from the scene in about a decade, the crown appointed other captains to carry on his work.. These men proved to be no less avaricious or gentler than he had been In 1494 theTaino population of the Caribbean islands had perhaps been a million or more. But "thirty years later they had been virtually annihilated."19
Boriquen, "Key to the Indies"
The Caribbean islands varied in the uses to which they were put by the Spanish. For example, Cuba was important for tobacco while Hispaniola was the regional center of administration and finance. And one island in particular was uniquely important for its military function. That island's native Taino people called their island Boriquen. From the military point of view, just as the Americans have called Okinawa the "Keystone of the Pacific" because of its particularly strategic location, the Spaniards called Boriquen the "Key to the Indies."20
Columbus "discovered" Boriquen on November 19, 1493. He called it San Juan Bautista, in homage to his patron saint. Soon after in 1508. Juan porice de Leon led a group of settlers from Hispaniola and founded the port town of Caparra on the Atlantic coast of San Juan Bautista.Then in 1521, Caparra's name was changed to puerto Rico (lovely port). A few years later the port town's name was changed again to San Juan.At that time the island itself was given the name puerto Rico.21
From the beginning the Europeans valued puerto Rico primarily for its military potential. Historian Carrion writes:
"As the Spanish empire in the New World grew ,... Puerto Rico was to become a Caribbean 'Christian Rhodes' a bulwark ready to repel intruders and infidels into the new Spanish Mare Nostrum; and, as the crown officials stated,`the strongest foothold of SPain in America'''22
PUERTO RICAN PEOPLE AND LANGUAGE
A Polyracial People
Caribbean people became a polyracial people during the period of Spanish rule. Sexual encounters, sometimes casual but often forced, between Spanish men and Taino women were common from the beginning.. Then as time passed, interracial marriage became increasingly common. Also, during the first three -quarters of a century of Spanish control, Negro slaves were imported in large numbers to work in the Spanish sugar fields and plants. The Indians and their biracial offspring were often forced to live and work together with the Negroes and this resulted in further racial mixin.
Then, in the fourth quarter of the first century of Spanish rule, the sugar economy faltered and "in the long period of economic decay that followed, blacks, Amerindians and whites [sic] were heir to abundant lands and, away from the cities, they were out of sight and control of metropolitan power... There developed a type of peasantry that is known as jibaro ... Genetically, it was an interweaving of European, African and Amenndian strands. " In fact, "today no pure Arawaks [Igeneri predecessors of the Taino people whom Columbus encolmtered and called "Indians"] live in the West Indies. The only surviving people of Arawakan lineage ... live along the Amazon River in Brazil."23
Recently, Latino poet David Hernandez noted his people's uniquely polyracial background in a hilarious poem -- with a serious point -- about the actrons of people of the city on the day "Chicago blew up." In the poem, the city blew up because of a poorly maintained, backed-up sewer main. The people thought that "star wars had arrived," that they "would presently die from nuclear-fallout, " and suddenly became morally circumspect. Among the immediate changes: People "began praying ... Suburbanites were no longer afraid of being mugged by some pointed-toe-shoe, black leather-dressed [Latino] ... Religions got together ... and allowed God to come in ... Dope-dealers and doctors admitted they were one and the same and promised not to do it again." And finally "Blacks, Whites, Orientals, Native Americans, Hispanics, Jews and Gentiles approved interracial marriages and their offsprings all looked like Puerto Ricans."24
Castilian Spanish Only
The language policy toward the Caribbe was that the language of Castile would be excltisively used. The measures employed to enforce this language policy were cruel in the extreme. In his 1988 poem; "No Landmarks to Remember,"Nuyorican poet Louis Reyes Rivera laments the fate of a distant ancestor, a galley slave who had had the a courage to speak in his, own language:
"There are no landmarks to remember.Despite the efforts of the metropolis to maintain pure Castilian Spanish in the Antilles, mingling of people from divergent cultures inevitably brought about mingling of their languages, producing a language now recognized as the Spanish of the Antilles. Even Puerto Rico, which experienced Castilian "cultural imperialism" as an "unbroken and relatively intense presence"26 thrbughout four centuries, developed a variety of Spanish recognized by today's linguists as "the standard Spanish of Puerto Rico, which falls perfectly within the framework of Latin American Spanish, specifically the Spanish of the Antilles."27
Only a 1,000 unknown pieces of
beach on rock 'scattered barren green waters is all that is left.
Can't say for sure
this one - right there
is where my mother's father's
great grand uncle was wrenched FREEE
from his groin on that thunder vibrant
day he cared to speak through his own tongue.
I know it did happen `cause
my grandmother's second cousin's
third niece told me about him:
how his whistling bones
broke the splinters on a
slow screeching rack in a
Caribbean desert made crisp
from a lonely sun.
`THEM OL'IV'RY BONES OF HIS WAS STRUUUUUNNNNGGG !'
she said ,`UNTIL THEY BROKE !'
her only lingering witness is the sunset on the shoreline:
sucking at the wilted wounds
lost beneath this stingy hole in the ground
where they pushed him
as he fell
No other landmarks were ever left behind
only a thousand bitter islands to remember. "25
Puerto Rican Spanish
There are two major distinguishing features of the Puerto Rican variety of Spanish. The first is the persistence of the influences upon it, both from the original Arawaks and from th Africans who were later brought to the area. Many Arawak vocabulary words, to mention a few: yuhayeque (Village), yuca (manioc), maiz (corn) and hamaca (hammock) are still used in everyday Puerto Rican speech.28 The legacy of the Negro slaves is most prominent in the strong African influence on the lyrics, music and body language of Puerto Rican singing, instrurnental music and dancing.
The second major distinguishing feature of Puerto Rican Spanish is in its pronunciation. It "differs from the Castilian variety ...primarily in intonation and replacement of two consonants, the palatal l,spelled ll, and the th sound, spelled c (before e and i) or z. These two sounds are replaced by sounds similar to the English y and s, respectively, and are known as yeismo and seseo."29
Their common language is vital to the puerto Rican people. Through it they maintain a sense of beloning and identity. For them it is both a "symbol of membership" and a "marker and symbol of culture."30
A Golden Isle of Vast Creativity
When Columbus invaded Boriquen in 1493, he was on a determined search for gold through all the islands. He was trying to fulfill a vow he had made to the Queen to present to her and her consort all the gold they could use.31 His handling of the small amounts of gold he found there was quite careful. But in all other matters, his methods were ruthless and haphazard. And ruthlessness and haphazardness were the hallmarks of 400 years of Spanish rule over the island.
However, in spite of those long centuries of oppression and maladministration, the people of Boriquen have woven a unique, creative culture from the heritage of their ancestors. Historian Arturo Morales Carrion writes:
" [The)]traditions and customs carried the imprint of the Catholic religion with traces of Talino and African elements. Country folklore, municipal festivities and the plantation became the focus ... for the artist, the poet, the storyteller ... They dwell on the encounter of the Spanish conquistadores with the brave Tainos..."32Also, again in Carrion's eloquent phrases, the people's identity flows from those ancestral cultural wellsprings:
"A Iegendary vein flows from that perennial fountain of Borinquen ancestry. It can be tasted in the subtle achiote (annato) coloring of the native foods as well as in the vibrant notes of the giuiro or a cuatro or in the steps and figures of a [African]bomba ... From the heart of the Rio de la Plata or the Rio Grande, through mountains such as the Asomante and the Tres Picachos ... the testimony of Puerto Rican creativity seems to be dictated by the echo of millions of voices whose sound has been made part of the wind, the waves, the air and the earth ... as if a secret pact had been made to communicate to others this search for an image in all the sources of the inner self ... Puerto Rico is a most homogeneous and congenial country in terms of spiritual and emotional communication among its people."33PUERTO RICO AND NORTH AMERICAN DOMINATION
As Malta Was to the British Empire
One morning in August, 1898 when Rudyard Kipling took up his pen and began his day's writing, he had just learned that the Americans, who had always been smugly self-righteous regarding the British colonial enterprises, had now themselves seized two newly autonomous, former Spanish colonies, the Philippines and Puerto Rico. And in sardonic "commemoration" of those events he wrote the now famous lines:
"Take up the White Man's burden -It is likely that the American authorities gave scant if any heed to such a judgement of their peers when that poem was published in 1899. They were preoccupied with empire, and as far as Puerto Rico was concerned, they had a clear vision of its militarily important role in that empire. In the words of Captain Alfred Mahan. Chief Naval Advisor to President Mckinley:
Send forth the best ye breed -
Go bind your sons to exile
To serve your captives need...
Your new-caught, sullen peoples,
Half devil and half child. ...
Take up the White Man's burden -
Have done with childish days -
The lightly proffered laurel,
The easy, ungrudged praise.
Comes now, to search your manhood
Through all the thankless years,
Cold-edged with dear-bought wisdom,
The judgement of your peers!"34
"Puerto Rico considered militarily, is to Cuba, to the future isthrnian canal, and to our Pacific Coast, what Malta is, or may be to Egypt and the beyond ... It would be extremely difficult for a European state to sustain military operations in the eastern Mediterranean with a British fleet at Malta. Sirnilarly, it would be very difficult for a transatlantic state to maintain operations in the western Caribbean with the United States fleet based upon Puerto Rico."35The U. S. invasion of Puerto Rico gained "legal" status with the signing of the Treaty of Paris which ended the war with Spain on December 10, 1898. In order that their military aims could be handily reached, the victorious Americans had required the defeated Spanish to formally cede Puerto Rico and the Philippines to the U. S. Moreover, Article IX of the treaty stipulated that the civil rights and the political status of the inhabitants were to be determined by the U. S. Congress.36
An Unaltered Presence
The U. S. Government has made a number of important changes concerning Puerto Ricans and their status during the 20th century. Three in particular have caused great changes in the lives of the Puerto Rican people.37 First in 1917, in order to facilitate the movement of cheap labor from Puerto Rico to the garment and tobacco industries of the Northeast, President Wilson signed the Jones Act into law. It unilaterally granted U. S. citizenship to all Puerto Ricans. This marked the beginning of mass migrations of poverty stricken, Iargely rural, Spanish-speaking Puerto Ricans to New York City. Then in 1934, President Roosevelt transferred the administration of the insular possession from the War Department to the Interior Department, and attempted to implement the New Deal there. The lasting impact of these two steps has been to create perpetual welfare check, food stamp dependencies, both in the islands and in the New York barrio.
The third momentous status change came in 1952 when President Truman signed Public Law 447. That legislation changed the status of Puerto Rico frorn a Territory to a Constitutional Commonwealth (Associated Free State). With that status, the Puerto Rican people elect their own local government members and direct their own education. They also have a non -voting representation in the U. S. Congress; and they may also send delegates to major political conventions, but may not vote in any mainland elections. l
In addition to such administrative changes, Puerto Rico has also experienced radical economic changes in the past century. In the sugar industry, marginal-wage earning peasantries have replaced the Spanish plantation systems.38Women operated home industries have supplemented the poor wages and welfare checks of the peasants.39 And in recent decades, mainly North American and multinationally financed resort and tourist industries on Puerto Rico's ocean fronts are bringing about sweeping transformations, both in the physical landscape and in the economy.
All these otherwise far-reaching economic and administrative changes have left two interrelated areas absolutely unaltered. One is control of all of Puerto Rico's external affairs by the government in Washington. And the other is the unimpeded freedom of activity by the U. S. military posted there. Puerto Rico remains today, to borrow a phrase from the U. S. invasion and occupation of Okinawa, the military "keystone" of the Caribbean. There is a mammoth Navy-Marine presence on the main island; and about half of the adjacent island of Vieques has been taken for use as bombing and artillery ranges. Puerto Rico remains - as both Columbus in the 15th and then Mahan in the 19th century envisioned it - the conquerors' military key to guarding their economic interests in the area.
A Persistent Denial
We now return to the issues of the general refusal in the U. S. to allow bilingual education, and of the persistent assignment of "inferior" status to Puerto Rican Spanish. Among Puerto Ricans, I particularly in New York City, this systematic rejection has contributed to a lack of community support for public schools, a very large factor in the staggering 80% high-school dropout rate among Puerto Rican pupils. Tragically, for the maJonty of these youth "today" rs therr only future and most of the roads open to them are ones which only lead down and away from meaningful participation in general society. Commenting on the meaning of this situation, Zentella points out that "the failure of the educational system to serve the language needs of these students is at the heart of the problem."40
As mentioned earlier, rejection of the Puerto Rican language is deeply related to chauvinistic patriotism and racism. But these factors alone are inadequate to explain it. We need to look further into the colonial process itself for a more complete explanation of this denial. First, it is a time worn principle, regularly employed by imperialist powers, that a particular people can be more handily subjugated if a sense of innate inferiority can be inculcated within them. A typical early step in the employment of this principle is a systematic denigration and suppression of the native people's most common marker and emblem of cultural identity, their mother tongue.
In relation to this principle, Zentella comments pertinently:
"A popular definition of 'standard' as 'the dialect with the army' reflects the truism that selection of a standard [language] is a question of political, not linguistic superiority, since each dialect is rule-governed and meets the communication needs of its speakers. The consistent attacks that Puerto Ricans encounter against their variety [of Spanish] are the consequence of a linguistic posture at the service ofNorth American officialdom, recognizing the cohesive emotional and cultural links which Nuyoricans maintain between East Harlem and the homeland, regularly treats the two areas as a single unit. For example, political candidates seeking the votes of Puerto Ricans living in New York City often include stops in Puerto Rico itself as part of their New York City campaign, as presidential candidate Bill Clinton did in the spring of 1992. In the same manner, prejudicial treatment of
political goals."41
expatriate Puerto Ricans in the mainland is an ongoing reinforcement of the continuing economic and military exploitation of their island homelands.
In Conclusion: Five Centuries after Columbus
This year marks the 500th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's first westward voyage in search of the gold of the East, and the consequent opening of European empire in the Caribbean with Puerto Rico as its main bastion. However, in spite of five centuries, four Spanish and one U. S., of unrelieved exploitation, the people of Puerto Rico have a unique, cohesive and highly creative culture. Moreover, as American citizens, they have a potentially rich contribution to make in the total life of the nation. Surely the logical way to begin accepting that contribution would be to initiate general bilingual education, and to recognize the use of Puerto Rican Spanish in the schools of such districts as East Harlem, where Puerto Ricans are so heavily concentrated.
Note: This essay is a part of a special research project which was conducted by the author in 1990-1991. It was sponsored by Okinawa International University and carried out with the cooperation of the Centro de Estudios Puertorriquenos, Hunter College in New York City, the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture in New York City and the Library of the Tokyo University of Foreign Languages. The author wishes to express his gratitude for this support and cooperation.
REFERENCES
1. Lyon E., "Search for Columbus " NG 13
2. Ibid.
3. A quotation from the apocryphal book of "Esdras" in Lyon, op. cit: 39.
4. Ibid., 25.
5. Ibid., 21.
6. Ibid.
7. Wasserman, M. and Keen, B., A History of Latin America 3rd ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1988), 58.
8. Lyon, op. cit., 24.
9. Ibid. See also Wasserman and Keen, Ioc. cit.
10. Lyon. Ioc. cit.
11. Deagan, K. A., "La Isabela, Foothold in the New World," NG: 42.
12. Wasserman and Keen, op. cit., 59; See also Lyon, op. cit.. 37.
13. Wasserman and Keen, op. cit., 61.
14. Deagan, op. cit., 52.
15. Dr. Rafael Cartagena, President, Inter-American University, P.R., in his rernarks to the International Association of University Presidents at Taichung, R.O.C. April 20, 1992.
16. Mohr, E. V., The Nuyorican Experience, (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1982), xi -xiv, 34- 35 Molesky, J "Understandmg the American Lingurstic Mosaic: A Historical Overview of Language Maintenance and Language Shift," LD: 51-2.; Chaney, E.. M., "The Context of Caribbean Migration," Caribbean Llfe in New York City: Sociocultural Dimensions, Ed. C. R. Sutton and E.. M. Chaney, (New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1987), passim; Fitzpatrick, J. P., Puerto Rican Americans: The Meaning of Migration to the Mainland 2nd. ed., (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1987), passim.
17. Deagan, op. cit., 42 (attributed to Bartolome de la Cases).
18. Ibid., 50 (as cited).
19. Ibid., 45.
20. Carrion, A. M., Puerto Rico a Political and Cultural History, (New York: W. W. Norton, 1983), 6.
21. Ibid., 8.
22. Ibid.
23. Hoetink. H., "'Race' and Color in the Caribbean," CC: 58; Waldman, C. Encylopedia of Native American Tribes, (New York: Facts on File Publications, 1988) 22.
24 Hernandez, D., "The Day Chicago Blew Up," CENTRO (Vol. II, No. 3, Spring, 1988): 49.
25 Rrvera, L..R., "No Landrnarks to Remember, " CENTRO (Vol. II, No. 3, Spring, 1988): 42.
26. Alleyne, M. C., "A Linguistic Perspective on the Caribbean, " CC: 159.
27. Zentella, A. C., "The Language Situation of Puerto Ricans," LD: 145.
28. Carr, N., The Puerto Ricans in Hawaii: 1900-1958 (Ph.D. Thesis, University of Hawaii, 1989), (Ann Arbor: Dissertation Information Service, 1990), 6.
29. Ibid., 144.
30. Aparicio, F. R., "Tato Laviera y Alurlsta: Hacia Una Poetica Bilingue, " CENTRO (Vol. II, No. 3, Spring, 1988): 7.
31. Deagan, op. cit., 45.
32. Carrion, op. cit., 321-2.
33. Ibid., 322-4.
34. Kipling, R., "The White Man's Burden," Kipling. A Selection of His Stories and Poems, Vol. II, John Beecroft, Ed. (Garden City: Doubleday, 1956), 444-5.
35. Quoted in Carrion, op. cit., 135.
36. Carrion, op. cit., 143.
37. Ibid., 235.
38. Hagelberg, G.B., "Sugar in the Caribbean: Turning Sunshine into Money," CC: 85.
39. Baerga, M. C., "Women's Labor and the Domestic Unit: Industrial Homework in Puerto Rico during the 1930s," CENTRO (Vol. II, No. 7, Winter, 1989-90): 34-39.
40 Zentella, op. cit., 155; For a detailed examination of the issue see: "Puerto Ricans and the Schools of New York City," Fitzpatrick, op. cit., 139 -168.
41. Ibid., 147.
Abbreviated Titles of Frequently Cited Works:
CC: Mintz, S. W. and Price, S., ed. Caribbean Contours. (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press), 1985
CENTRO: CENTRO, de Estudios Puertorriquenos Bulletin. (New York: Hunter College).
LD: McKay, S. L.. and Wong, S., ed. Language Diversity, Problem or Resource? (New York: Newbury House), 1988.
NG: Natiovral Geographic. January, 1992.
For comprehensive bibliographical information refer to the author's, "A Bibliography on Expatriate Puerto Ricans in the United States," elsewhere in this volurne.
クリストファー・コロンブスの500年の遺産とニューヨリカン
ウイリアム.T.ランドール
(金澤美和訳)
序
400年間のスペイン支配と100年間のアメリカ支配という500年間にわたり、プエルトリコはカリブ海における軍事上の鍵という利用目的から開発されてきた。近年、プエルトリコ沿岸部はリゾート開発のためアメリカをはじめ多国籍資本の餌食となっている。さらに、米国市民権や安価な航空運賃が、アメリカとカリプ海の島々を循環するというプエルトリコ人特有の現象を容易にしている。アメリカ最大のプエルトリコ人居住区は、ニュートク市イーストハーレムのバリオである。そこに暮らす人々は自らを「ニューヨリカン」と称し、生まれ故郷の島々との強い結びつきを通して彼らのルーツであるアンティル諸島の文化や言語を守り続けている。彼らの母国語であるプエルトリコ系スペイン語は、言語学者によってその正当性が認められている。しかし、アメリカ杜会に強い影響力を及ぼす文化的な風潮として、ニカ国語教育の実施に対する強い抵抗がある。さらに、たとえニカ国語教育が実施されている地域でも、プエルトリコ系スペイン語に対する認識は標準的なスペイン語から「劣った地方語」という位置づけでしかない。こうした現実が、彼らのアイデンティティやアメリカ人の生活全体に影響を及ぼす潜在的貢献度に関してニューヨリカンを困惑させている。こうした現状の背景には、アメリカの軍事主義、好戦的愛国主義、人種差別だけでなく、プエルトリコという島国においてアメリカによる軍や経済の開発といった問題が複雑に入り組んでいるのである。
カリプ海地域とヨーロッパ
15世紀ジェノバ、黄金貿易の拠点
1492年カリプ海に到達した3隻のスペイン船二一ナ、ピンタ、サンターマリアの乗組員達は、初めて新世界に足を踏み入れたヨーロッパ人として記録に残っている。しかしながら、スペイン王の提督で旗艦サンターマリアの船長であるクリストファー・コロンプス卿、最初のスペイン植民地エスパニョーラ島(カリプ海)の入植者でその後4世紀にもわたるスペイン統治の基礎を確立した男は、スペイン人ではない。彼はイタリアの自治都市ジェノバ出身の、クリストフォロ・コロンポといった。したがって、本論は彼の経歴を要約することから始めたい。
15世紀のジェノバは、「活気にあふれた賑やかな都市で、粗野だが刺激的な空気を醸し出していた。」そこに暮らす人々は「頑固で欲張り、真の国際人」で、国際結婚もめずらしいことではなく、外国語を積極的に学び、コルシカやサルディニア、シチリア、ギリシャやアフリカなど、ジェノバから遠く離れた土地にも事業を展開していた。1すべての商売における最重要目標は、黄金の獲得だった。商品を黄金に変えるためなら、彼らは「地の果て」までも行くだろうと言われていた。15世紀のジェノバ市民にとって、黄金は「究極の富の蓄積」2を意味していた。
クリストファー・コロンブス、黄金を探求する十字軍騎士
1476年、5隻の船がジェノバからイングランドに向けて、呪われた航海に船出した。当時、羊毛取引で生計を立てていた若きクリストファー・コロンプスは、5隻のうちの1隻に乗船していた。その航海は失敗に終わったが、「世界中を混乱させ今までの常識を根底から覆し人々を震憾させた」3コロンプスの大冒険と密接に結びついた。コロンプスが参加した船団はジプラルタル海峡の大西洋側で海賊の襲撃にあった。ほとんどのジェノバ人乗組員が命を落としたが、コロンプスを含む僅かな人々は生き延びポルトガルの海岸に泳ぎ着いた。コロンプスはポルトガルのラゴスという町近くの浜辺に辿り着き、リスポンヘ向かった。そこでコロンプスは経済的杜会的地位を築きあげることに取り組んだ。彼は同行したジェノバ人を相手に商いを始め、富を形成した。そうして彼は貧乏だが由緒正しい貴族の娘と結婚することで、宮廷に出入りする特権を手に入れた。野心的な商人ながら敬度なカトリック信者でもあるコロンプスは、アラプ人が独占していた東方貿易と、彼らの支配下にあった聖地エルサレムを、二重の意味で動揺させた。彼は「黄金を手にする者ならこの世のすべてを意のままにできる。天国の門をくぐることさえも。」4と書いている。彼は自らを遅れてきた十宇軍騎士だと考えるようになった。彼は「聖地奪還の資金集め」5のためには、東方への新しいルートを開拓することが必要だという考えに夢中になった。
暗黒の海
アラプ人による東方貿易の独占が、ポルトガル商人達に西回りに東方へ至る新ルートの開拓という難題へ導いたのは、白然の成り行きだった。しかし彼らのほとんどは、古くから語り継がれた大西洋にまつわる恐怖を胸に抱いていた。その恐怖とは12世紀に記されたかの有名なアラプ人地理学者アル・イドリシによるものだった。「その海に何があるのか、知る者はいない。なぜなら、深い闇、高い波、頻繁に襲いかかる嵐、おびただしい数の怪物、そして凶暴な風といった多くの障害が、航海を妨げるからだ。このような海を通り抜けようとする無謀な船乗りなどいない。賢明な船乗りは陸地を見失わない程度の距離を保ちながら航行するものだ」515世紀末でさえ、ポルトガル人は大西洋をアラプ人が使う表現を借りてこう呼んでいた。「暗黒の海」6と。
他方で、地球は丸く大西洋航路は可能であると信じるポルトガル人もいた。7そのなかでも有名なのが、ヘンリー航海皇子で、彼の主張はコロンブスに大きな影響を与えた。8さらにコロンプスは舅の書類の中からフィレンツェの優れた地理学者パオロ・デル・トスカネリがポルトガル王ジョンヘ宛てた手紙を見つけた。トスカネリはジョン王に西回りでアジアに向かう航路を試すよう助言し、そのルートは「ギニア航路よりも短い」9だろうと述べた。
ワッセルマンはコロンブスがその手紙から受けた決定的な衝撃についてこう書いている。
西洋から東方に到達するという着想は、野望を実現するために必要な力を手に入れることを意味する。中世から世界規模の資本主義と科学の時代へと移り変わる過渡期が現実のものとなりつつあったこの時代、神秘と現実が奇妙に混在した男コロンブスは、神自身が彼にインドヘ至る正しいルートを明らかにし、この計画を実現させてくれるだろうと確信するようになった。10コロンブスとイザベラ女王
コロンブスはポルトガル王に彼の計画への融資を説得することを試みた。ジョンU世のすげない拒絶に、コロンブズはスペイン人僧侶の協力を得てスペイン王家へと融資の依頼を変更した。ぞして彼はスペイン女王イザベラに資金援助の約束を取りつけることに成功したのである。こうして、コロンブスはスペイン提督として西回りルートで船出したのである。
実際にはカリブ海を航海していても、コロンブスは常にインドへ向かっているのだと主張していた。1492年コロンブスが指揮をとる初めての航海で、彼がナビダドと名付けたイスパニョーラ島の未開の植民地に暫定的なスペイン支配を確立した。二度目の航海に出た1493年、彼は新世界初のヨーロッパ人町を、島の北西岸の「ちょこんと」岩が座っている美しい入り江に建設し、ラ・イザベラとと名付けた。11彼はその岩に「アジアの果て」と刻むことを考えた。さらに彼は、キューバを日本、南アメリカ沿岸をアジア大陸の沿岸部だと力説した。そしていかなる反論をも抑えつけて、「コロンブスは航海に加わった乗組員たちに、もしも彼の主張に反論したらその舌を切り裂き鞭打ち100回を課すと神かけて誓わせた。」12そして彼の死後も「コロンブ:スの大いなる勘違いは人々をとらえて離さなかった」13彼の手記には、.「私はインドをスペインに献上した」と記されており、彼の遺書によると「献上したといったが、それは我らの君主である神の明白な意志だったから私の一存で与えたのである。」14
ニューヨリカン
カリブの島々の先住民であるタイノ族伝来の伝承、詩、歌、踊りには、突然現れたスぺイン人支配者に対する深い反感が刻まれ今に伝わっている。世代を重ねながらも心に抱いてきた深い怒りは、結果的に彼らの大地、習慣、文化、言語や彼らの人種的特徴までもが奪われ消し去られてしまい、何もかもが無残にも完全に取り返しのつかないほど作り変えられてしまったという事実に根ざしている。しかし、途方もない範囲にわたる文化消失にあったにもかかわらず、カリブの人々は失われた文化の残骸から素晴らしく他に類のない独創的で永続的な文化を形成したのである。
. このカリブ海の地域社会の生き残り、とも言うベき人々の多くが、、ここ数十年のあいだにアメリカ合衆国へ移住してきた。この現象は特にプエルトリコ人に多く見られるものである。彼らにとって米国市民権や法制度、航空運賃などがアメリカと島々の間を行き来する彼ら独特の周期的に繰り返される移動パターンを維持する要因になっている。詳細な人口調査によるデータを見つけることは困難だが、島々の人口350万のうち150万がつねにアメリカに分布しているということは確実な推測である。15
アメリカ在住のプエルトリコ人の大多数は、イーストハーレムのバリオに住んでいる。彼らは自らをニューヨリカンと称す。彼らは絶えずアメリカ社会の一般的な文化に刻まれている人種排斥という根深い病巣に直面している。彼らはセオドア・ルーズベルトの好戦的愛国主義の言うところの「混血アメリカ人」であるがために、拒されている。その言語もまた拒絶されている。スペイン語は、一般的に「アメリカにふさわしくない」とか「愛国的ではない」という理由から排斥される。その上、プエルトリコ系スペイン語は一般的に標準的スペイン語(カスティア語)よりも「劣った地方語」という低い認識を持たれている。しかしこうしたプレッシャーに直面しているにもかかわらず、また彼らよりも先に移住した他の移民集団と違って、ニューヨリカンは一般的な大衆社会へ融合しないという傾向がある。それどころか彼らは故郷との強い絆を保ち、プエルトリコの文化と言語を維持し続けている。16
プエルトリコ、カリブ海のスペイン植民地
半人半獣
黄金を追い求める不断の探求から、コロンブスとその部下達はしばしば完全武装で自分達が発見した島々で原住民のなかに分け入った。コロンブスが「インデイアン」と名付けた人々は、未だかつて馬という動物を見たことがなかったので、当初、馬に乗った人々を半人半獣の怪物だと勘違いしていた。侵略者達は原住民に恐怖を植え付けられる強みを最大限に活かし、馬に乗った堂々とした行軍でヨーロッパ人は「彼らを攻撃し打撃を与えることができる、並外れた力を持っている」17と思い知らせた。
さらにコロンブスは、原住民を実際に非情なまでに攻撃し傷を負わせた。スペイン女王でさえコロンブスの度を越した残虐行為に恐怖し、1500年に調査団をスペインから派遺している。その結果、コロンブスは逮捕され鎖につながれたままスペインヘ送還された。結局、コロンブスは提督の称号を返還されもう一度航海を行うことになったが、女王への信頼が回復されることは二度となかった。コロンブスは、1506年3月20日にこの世を去った。巨万の富を築いたが、気性の激しい人物だった。コロンブスは彼の崇拝者達の間に「用心深さ、征服、虐殺」18という遺産を残していった。
コロンブスはかの伝説的な暗黒の海を征服し、南アフリカ東岸のキューバやイスパニョーラ、アンティル諸島に、スペインによる支配を確立した。しかしその過程において、彼は人間の内面にある最も暗い衝動、貪欲さや残忍さを解き放ったのである。彼は10年間という活動期間を許可されていたけれど、女王は他の船長らにコロンブスの仕事を引き継がせた。彼らはコロンブスの強欲さや偉大さが生前に劣らず健在であることを証明した。1494年、カリブの島々におけるタイノ族人口はおよそ100万かそれ以上いただろう。しかし、「30年後、彼らは事実上絶滅してしまった。」19
インドヘの鍵、ボリクェン
カリブの島々は、スペインの慣習を強いられたために変容してしまった。例えば、キューバはイスパニョーラ島がカリブ地域の行財政の中心地だった間、重要なタバコの産地だった。さらにある島は、特に軍事的役割において他と比べようもないほど重要な意味を持つようになった。この島を先住民であるタイノの人々はボリクェンと呼んでいた。アメリカが軍事的見地から沖縄を「太平洋の鍵」と称したように、スペイン人はボリクェンを「インドヘの鍵」20と呼んだ。
コロンプスがボリクェンを「発見」したのは、1493年11月19日のことである。彼はこの島を彼の守護聖人に敬意を表してサン・ファン・バウチスタと名付けた。そのすぐ後、1508年にファン・ポンス・デ・レオンがイスパニョーラ島から移民グループを率いてやってきた。そしてサン・ファン・バウチスタの大西洋岸にキャパーラという港町を建設した。1521年にキャパーラはプエルトリコ(美しい港)に名称を変更した。それからさらに数年後、港町はサンファンにその名を再度変更した。そのときに島の名称をプエルトリコと定めた。21
初めからヨーロッパ人は何よりもまずプエルトリコがもつ軍事的可能性に目をつけていた。
新世界におけるスペイン帝国の発展が進むにつれ、プエルトリコはカリプ海の「キリスト教徒にとってのロードス島」となって、侵略者や異教徒をスペインにとって国内外の諸問題(訳注:経済・軍事・外交など)の万能薬ともいえる海域に寄せ付けないための防波堤の役割を担った。また、プエルトリコが「スペインにとってアメリカ進出のもっとも強カな足がかり」と国王も正式に述べている。22
プエルトリコとその言語
混血化が進む人々
カリプ海地域の人々はスペイン統治下で様々な民族の入り混じった混血化が進んだ。性行為は時に気軽に行われることもあったが大抵は強要され、当初はスペイン人男性とタイノ族女性の間によく起こった。その後時間が経過するにつれ、異人種間の婚姻がますます一般化していった。また、スペイン支配下にあっ400年間のうちの300年間、大量の黒人奴隷が労働力としてスペイン領主のサトウキビ農園に連れてこられた。カリブの人々と混血カリブ人はしばしば黒人奴隷との共同生活・共同作業を強いられたため、人種の混血化はさらに進展した。
そしてスペイン統治の初めの1世紀が終わる頃には、砂糖経済は衰え、「長期にわたる経済的腐敗により、黒人やアメリカインディアン、白人(原文をそのまま引用)は広大な土地を継承し、都市から離れて、スペイン本国の監視や支配からも離れ……(中略)ビバロ(訳注:プエルトリコの田舎に住む人々)として知られる小作農階級として発展し……遺伝子上、それはヨーロッパやアフリカ、そしてアメリカインディアンという様々な糸が交じり合って織りあげられたものだった。」事実、「今日、純粋なアラワク族(コロンブスと遭遇し「インディアン」と呼ばれたタイノ族の祖先)は西インド諸島には存在しない。アラワクの子孫はブラジルのアマゾン川流域に生活している人々のみである。」23
近頃ラテンアメリカ人の詩人デイビッド・ヘルナンデスは、大都市で生活する人々について書かれた「爆発するシカゴ」という陽気な作品のなかで彼らラテンアメリカ人独特の多人種という背景を鋭く指摘した。その詩によると、都市は惨めに維持されて詰まった下水管から爆発する。人カは「宇宙戦争が起こった」と思い、彼らは「やがて核兵器による死の灰で死に、」そして突然道徳的に慎重になった。直接的な変化に加えて、人々は「祈りはじめた。郊外居住者はもはや先の尖った靴や黒革でラティーノを装った者に打たれることを恐れなくなった……宗教は一つになり……神の降臨を認める……麻薬の売人と医者は白分達が同類であることを認め、二度と繰り返さないと約束した。」そして最後に「黒人、白人、東洋人、アメリカ先往民、スペイン系、ユダヤ人、異教徒も、プエルトリコ人のような異人種間結婚とそれにより生まれた子ども達を承認した。」24
標準的スペイン語限定
カリブ海地域に対する言語政策は、標準的なスペイン語であるカスティリャ語のみを使用するというものだった。この言語政策を施行するために、非常に厳しい措置をとった。「亡き人を偲ぶ墓標もなく」というルイス・レイズ・リペラの1988年の詩で、彼はガレー船の奴隷達でさえ自分達の言葉で話をする勇気を持っていたのに、と、自らの祖先から遠く離れてしまったことを嘆いている。
「亡き人を偲ぶ墓標もなくアンティル諸島でカスティリャ語を保とうという本国の努力にもかかわらず、異なる文化を持つ人々を混在させると、アンティル系スペイン語として現在認知される言語が派生したように、言語が必ず入り乱れ交じり合う。プエルトリコでさえ4世紀に及ぶ「強固かつ比較的激しい影響力」26というカスティリャ語の「文化帝国主義」を経験してきたにもかかわらず、バラエティに富んだスペイン語が発達した。今日の言語学者がいうところの標準的なプエルトリコ系スペイン語、完全に南米スペイン語の、特にアンティル系スペイン語の構造が内部に見られる。」27
ただ1000もの人知れぬ渚の破片が
岩上に無為な緑水を撤き散らし去ってゆく
はっきりとは言えないが
それは確かに起こった
私の母の父親の大叔父が
雷が世界を震わせた日に
彼は性器をもぎ取られた
私は何が起きたのか知っている。なぜなら
私の祖母の2番目のいとこの
3番目の姪が私の彼のことを話してくれたから
カリブの不毛な大地で孤独な太陽にカリカリに焼かれた
大きな車輪に手足をきつく縛り付けられて
彼の軋む骨がどのようにゆっくりと粉々になったか
そして彼の骨は激しく櫟かれた!!!
彼の骨が砕けるまで!!!!!と彼女は叫んだ
彼女の消えることのない悲痛な記憶の目撃者は海岸線の夕陽だけ
傷口にあてられた1000もの雑草の葉は血を吸って萎れ
大地にうがたれたみすぼらしい穴へそっと彼を押しやり
落ちるにまかせた
墓標は残さない
激しく憤る島々だけがいつまでも記憶している」25
プエルトリコ系スペイン語
プエルトリコ系スペイン語には、標準的なスペイン語であるカスティリャ語と比較すると2つの大きな特徴がある。第一の特徴は、アラワク語とカリブ海地域に奴隷として連れてこられたアフリカ人の影響が今も深く根付いているということである。あるアラワク語の単語からいくつかあげてみると、ユカイェケ(yukayeque)[村]、ユカ(yuca)[キャッサバ]、マイズ(mayz)[とうもろこし]、ハマカ(hamaca)[ハンモック]などが、現在もプエルトリコで日常会話のなかで使用されている28。黒人奴隷が残したアフリカ文化の強い影響は、プエルトリコの音楽における歌詞やメロディー(曲調)、ダンスの振りなどに顕著に表れている。
プエルトリコ系スペイン語に関する第二の特徴は、その発音である。それはイントネーションと(llと綴る場合の半母音(l)と、(eとjの前)にくる(c)や(z)を(th)と発音する2つの子音の変更にある。これら2つの発音は、それぞれが英語における類似した発音のyとs(yeismoやseseoでよく知られる)の代用である29。
プエルトリコの言語はプエルトリコの人々にとって不可欠なものである。この言語を通じて、彼らはプエルトリコというきずなとアイデンティティを保っている。彼らにとってまさに「プエルトリコ人であることの証」であり「文化の象徴、文化の道標」30なのである。
無限に広がる創造力に満ちた輝ける島
コロンブスがボリクェンに侵入した1493年、彼は島のいたる所で黄金を探そうと固く心に決めた。彼は女王とその夫にたくさんの黄金を贈ると誓った約束を実現させようとしたのである31。しかしコロンブスが血のにじむ様な努力で発見した黄金は、僅かな量でしかなかった。しかし黄金以外のすべての事柄において、コロンブスのやり方は冷酷かつ無計画なものだった。冷酷と計画性の無さは、この島における400年ものスペイン支配の特徴なのである。
しかしながら、数百年に及ぶ圧政と誤った処遇にもかかわらず、ボリクェンの人々は祖先の伝統から他に類をみないユニークな文化を創造したのである。歴史学者アルトロ・モラレス・カリオンはこう書いている。
「その伝統や習慣には、カトリック信仰やタイノ族の痕跡、アフリカ的な要素の影響が残されている。土地に伝わる民間伝承や地方の祭り、大農園などが、芸術家や詩人、作家に注目されるようになった。彼らは勇敢なタリノの人々とスペイン人征服者との遭遇を題材に捜索活動を行っている。」32さらにカリオンの強く訴えかけるような文章によると、ボリクェンの人々のアイデンティティは祖先から受け継いだ文化的水脈から豊かに湧き出ているのである。
「彼らの有名な気質は、ボリクェンの祖先たちから受け継いだ、枯れることのない豊かな泉から湧き出し流れている。それは伝統料理に彩りを加えるアーティオウテ(アナート/赤い染料が取れるベニノキ科の植物)のかすかな風味、ギロ(打楽器の一種)やクワトロ(弦楽器の一種)の力強い調べ、あるいはアフリカのボンバ(ダンスの一種)のステツプや一連の動作から見出すことができる。プエルトリコ人の創造力の証拠は、ラプラタ川やリオグランデ川を渡る波、アシマンテ山やトレス・ピカチョス山を通り抜ける風、大気や人地を震わせる何百万もの声によるこだまに記されている。それはあたかも白己の奥深くにある水源に秘められた、祖先から受け継いだ遺産を探索する者たちへ送られた秘密の約束のようである。プエルトリコの人々は、精神的感情的な結びつきを均一に同じ強さで共有する人々である。」33
アメリカ合衆国による支配とプエルトリコ
旧大英帝国領マルタ島を手本に
1898年8月のある朝、ジャングルブックの原作者であるキプリングはペンを取り、イギリスの植民地経営を相手に独善的な密貿易を行っているアメリカ人から聞いた、アメリカが旧スペイン植民地フィリピンとプエルトリコの自治権を獲得したというニュースを目記に書きとめた。さらにその皮肉な「祝賀行事」について書かれた文章は、堤在広く知られている。
「白人の重荷を引き継ぎこの詩が発表された1899年当時、彼らの仲間達による審判に対してアメリカ政府関係者はほんの僅かな注意を払うことさえもおそらくは惜しんだのだろう。彼らは、プエルトリコが英国に対して軍事的に重要な役割を果たすというはっきりとした見通しを持っていた。主席海軍顧問を務めたアルフレッド・マハン大佐はマッキンリー首相にこのような意見を宛てている。
汝らを最もよく育んでくれる外国へ送ろう
汝の子らを国外に追放し
汝らが捕らわれている市場に仕えるために
お前達の新しくとらわれた不機嫌な人々、
半悪魔で半子どもの、
白人の重みを引き継いで
子どもじみた日々に別れを告げて、
すみやかに名誉を申し出よ
容易な気前のよい賛美を
今、お前の勇気を探求せよ
全ての割に合わない年月を通して
冷たく鋭い、冷酷な賢明さ
お前の仲間達に対する審判」34B
「プエルトリコをマルタ島とエジプトなどとの関係を参考に。対キューバや将来的にはパナマ運河から太平洋沿岸まで視野に入れた軍事的拠点として検討してみました。ヨーロッパ諸国にとって、地中海東部における継続的な軍事行動の遂行が大変困難だった理由に、マルタ島に配置された英国艦隊の存在があります。同様にわが国と大西洋を挟んだ対岸の国にとって米艦隊がプエルトリコに配備されたカリブ海西部における軍事行動の維持は非常に困難なものになるでしょう。」35アメリカによるプエルトリコ侵入は、1898年12月10目に締結されたアメリカ=スペイン戦争終結のためのパリ条約により「合法的」な正当性を得た。軍事的目標を手際よく広げるために、戦勝国であるアメリカは敗戦国スペインにプエルトリコ及びフィリピンを正式に割譲するよう要求した。さらに、米議会はパリ条約第11条で保障された住民の市民権および政治的身分を承認した。36
不変の存在
20世紀以降米合衆国政府はプエルトリコとその社会的地位に配慮した多くの重要な政策上の変更を行ってきた。特に3つの変化がプエルトリコ人の生活を大きく様変わりさせた37。最初の変化は1917年、米北東部における衣料品及びタバコ産業に必要なプエルトリコからの安価な労働力の移動を容易にするために、ウィルソン大統領はジョーンズアクトを法律として承認した。これにより、全てのプエルトリコ人に米市民権が与えられるようになった。これを機に貧困に打ちひしがれた、その大部分が田舎からの、スペイン語しか話せないプエルトリコ人がニューヨークヘの大規模な移住が始まった。1934年になるとルーズベルト大統領は島嶼部植民地の行政を軍統治下から内務省へ移動させ、ニューディール政策実施を試みた。この2つの政策による継続的な影響により、永続的な福祉援助と食料切符が今日でも島及びニューヨーク市バリオで行われている。
第3の重要な地位の変化は、1952年トルーマンが【Public Low447】(訳注:アメリカ合衆国における内務に関する法律。適当な訳語が見つからなかったため原文のまま表記)を承認したことから起こった。この新たな法制定が、プエルトリコの立場を準州から白由連合州へと変えた。それにより、プエルトリコの人々は自分達の地方行政を担う議員達の選出や国内の教育の統括が可能になった。さらに彼らには議決権はないものの、米議会への出席も許され、主要な政治大会にも参加できるようになったが、米国におけるいかなる投票権も許されていない。
こうした行政上の変更に加えて、プエルトリコは前世紀に急激な経済的変化を経験した。サトウキビ生産では、スペイン流のプランテーション農業から最低賃金で生計を立てる小作農に取って代わった38。女性たちは低所得と小作農に支給される生活保護だけでは厳しい家計を補うため、内職に精を出していた39。またこの数十年、羊にアメリカ資本や多国籍企業が出資するリゾート施設や観光産業により、プエルトリコの海岸部一帯は、その風景はもちろん経済的にも瞬く間に大きな変化を遂げた。
こうした他に類を見ない広範囲に及ぶ経済的行政的変化は、2つの相互に関連する問題を解決困難な不変的なものにした。1つはすべてのプエルトリコにおける外部からもたらされる問題が、ワシントンの合衆国政府の統制化にあるという点。もう1つは、米軍が何の障害もない自由な活動を保障されて駐留しているという点。
プエルトリコは今日においても依然として、沖縄を侵略し占領した米軍による表現を借りると、米軍にとってカリブ海地域の「要石」のままなのである。プエルトリコ本島には巨大な海軍と海兵隊の基地が存在し、隣接するビエケス島は爆撃などの演習場として使用された。プエルトリコは、15世紀のコロンブス、さらには19世紀のマハン(米海軍軍人)が構想したように、征服者とその軍隊にとってカリブ海地域における経済的重要性を守る鍵なのである。
消えることのない拒絶
さて、アメリカ合衆国におけるニカ国語教育を拒絶する一般的風潮とプエルトリコ系スペイン語を劣ったものに位置づけることに固執する問題に戻ろう。プエルトリコ人の中でもとりわけニューヨーク市において、この組織的な拒絶は公立学校に対する地域支援の欠乏に起因しており、プエルトリコ人学生の80%にも及ぶ高校中途退学率の大きな要因となっている。残念なことに大多数のプエルトリコの若者にとって、「今日」とは彼ら自身だけの未来を意味し、彼らに開かれている道のほとんどが一般的な社会への意義深い参加とは程遠いかけ離れたものである。こうした状況の意味するところを批判して、ゼンテッラはこう述べている。
「このような生徒たちが必要とする言語を供給する教育制度の失敗がこの問題の核心にある」40前述したように、プエルトリコ人の言語に対する拒絶は、排他的愛国主義と人種差別主義に深い関連がある。しかしこれらの要因だけでこうした風潮を説明するのは不十分である。私達は植民地化の過程そのものからこのような拒絶に関するより完全な真相をさらに深く追究する必要がある。まず第1に、常に帝国主義の権力者たちに利用されてきた、使い古された原則として、支配される側の人々に生まれつき自分達が劣っているという認識を植えつけることができれば、特権階級はよりたやすく植民地を支配することが可能になる。この原則の適用における典型的な初期の段階として、組織的な人格の否定と先住民にとって最も普遍的な文化的アイデンティティの象徴や目印、母国語の抑圧が行われる。この原則について、ゼンテッラは的確な論述を行っている。
「軍隊の共通認識としての「標準(スタンダード)」の一般的な定義には、標準語の選択アメリカ合衆国の官僚主義は、イーストハーレムと母国プエルトリコとの間に保たれている感情的文化的に結束した絆を認識し、通常これら2つの地域を1つのまとまりとして扱っている。例えば選挙の立侯補者はニューヨーク市在住のプエルトリコ人の票を求めて、しばしばニューヨーク市における選挙活動の一環として、1992年の春に大統領侯補者だったビル・クリントンが行ったように、プエルトリコにまで足を運ぶ。また同様にアメリカ本国在住の祖国から離れたプエルトリコ人に対する不当な扱いが、プエルトリコにおける経済的軍事的開発の継続を強化し続けている。
が言語学的見地からではなく政治的優位性から、支配者側の言語であることと、その言語を話す人々が地元の人々とのコミュニケーションをとる必要性からなされるという、自明の理が反映されている。プエルトリコ人がこれまで遭遇したことの無い彼らの多様性に対する一貫した攻撃は、政治的目標の運用における言語に関する基本方針の結果である。」41
終わりに:コロンブスから5世紀後
今年は、クリストファー・コロンブスが東方の黄金を求めて初めて西回りに航海を行い、またその結果としてプエルトリコがカリブ海地域におけるヨーロッパ帝国主義の防衛の要となってから、500年目の記念の年である。しかしながら、スペインによる4世紀とアメリカによる1世紀という5世紀もの年月が過ぎたにもかかわらず、救いようのないほどにひどい搾敢に苦しみながらもプエルトリコの人々は、他に類をみない団結と独創性の高い文化を維持している。その上、アメリカ合衆国市民として彼らは潜在的に国内の日常生活に総合的に高く貢献している。プエルトリコ人によるアメリカ合衆国への貢献度が認知されることで、一般的な学校教育でのニカ国語教育の実施やイーストハーレムのようにプエルトリコ系住民が密集する地域の学校におけるプエルトリコ系スペイン語の使用許可など、彼らへの待遇が配慮されることになるのは必然な流れだといえるだろう。
本論は1990〜91年に筆者が行った特別研究プロジェクトの一部である。この研究は、沖縄国際大学の支援のもと、Centro de Estudious Puertrriquenos,ハンター大学(ニューヨーク市)、Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture in NY City,東京大学外国語図書館の協力のもと行われた。この場を借りて、本研究への支援と協力をいただいたこれらの研究機関および関係者各位へ、筆者から心からの感謝の気持ちをここに表したい。
Introduction to the Autobiographical Works of Piri Thomas:First Major Writer among Second Generation Nuyoricans
INTRODUCTION
Piri Thomas, born in East Harlem in 1928, became the first major Puerto Rican writer whose birthplace was North America, not Puerto Rico; he was also the first Puerto Rican to use the English language in depicting the life of Nuyoricans. His three most important books, Down These Mean Streets (1967), Savior Hold My Hand (1972) and Seven Long Times (1974), form an overlapping, three-part autobiography. Together they cover his life from the early 1930s to the mid-1960s. They tell of his poor, struggling., East (Spanish) Harlem family's life during the depression years, of the burden of being a "spic" or a "nigger" in White-dominated North America more than two decades before the civil rights movements. His writings chronicle a sensitive and articulate man's lonely struggle for racial identity, encounters with heroin addiction, homosexuality, cornmon criminality and residence in several New York prisons.
This trilogy, especially in its portrayal of Piri Thomas's inability to secure for himself a true niche in the North American society to which his family had migrated, is a searing critique of that society. It is made brilliantly clear that this was not due to Piri's incapacity to become a part of, and make a meaningful contribution to, mainstream USA; rather it was due to the incapacity of that society itself to accept citizens of color or accented speech.
In search of himself and of a place in the world in which he found himself, Piri passes through several phases and encounters many kinds of people, including street gangs, the Black Muslims and the Pentecostal church. In the end he is forced to conclude that the only way Nuyoricans will ever survive will be within the physical limits of the East Harlem barrio and through the spiritual strength of their common Puerto Rican heritage.
DO WN THESE MEAN STREETS
Time has not diminished the importance of Piri Thomas's autobiographical works, even though many major Puerto Rican writers have since appeared who use the English medium. Eugene Mohr, who also grew up in East Harlern and is now Professor of English at the University of Puerto Rico writes: "Despite stylistic and structural weaknesses in his writing and general narrowness in the range of experience described, Thornas remains, because of the persistent moral commentary which runs through his work, the most serious and interesting spokesman for second-generation Puerto Ricans in New York."1 Perhaps that is a major reason why Down These Mean Streets, a book which begins with events which happened a half-century ago in East Harlem, is still a best seller among young Hispanics growing up there today.
Fighting for Survival and Maturity in El Barrio
Down These Mean Streets vividly expresses the inner struggles of Thornas's youth. It is a brutally honest portrayal of a young man trying to come to terms with the three worlds of his childhood and youth: family, school and streets.
His primary world was his racially mixed family. On one hand, there was his moreno, or tan, Poppa. Sadly for Piri, Poppa was overwhelmed by the strains and anxieties of working at two, and sometimes three, jobs, doing the best could to provide enough money to survive in New York and escape having to return to the even worse poverty he had left behind in the islands. Thus he possessed nei.ther the emotional nor the economic resources he needed to guide and support his look-a-like son. On the other hand, there was Piri's blanco (white) Momma, lost in her dream-like memories of "green" Puerto Rico. She could never even begin to understand why her morenonito Piri was always something of an outsider within the family or why he also seemed to get into many more difficulties than her four other children, all four of whom had white skin like hers.
Piri's second world was public school. Traditionally speaking, school has been the first important step for newcomers to the United States on their road to finding a place in mainstream American society. But for Piri, it did not work that way. First of all, he was, as expressed in Puerto Rican Spanish,jibaro. Among the polyracial Puerto Ricans, jibaro included light-colored people, dark-colored people and all shades between. But in North America, the issue was more clearly marked out, because of his skin color the only "mamstrearn" available to him was that of the "nigger." Moreover, the variety of Spanish he and his family used was not really Spanish as far as the schools were concerned, it was the "inferior" Puerto Rican variety. It is not surprising, therefore, that school does not occupy a very important place in Piri's account of growing up.
Piri's third world was the streets which, for any boy growing up in the East Harlem barrio, meant gangs. It was a matter of survival to be a gang member; and in order to become a member a boy usually had to prove his mettle through some conspicuous act of bravery, often involving great personal danger. This proof for Piri was to fight. Street-fighting was extremely dangerous, often resulting in death or serious injury. Once, in one of his many street fights. Piri was almost blinded when his opponent threw pavement asphalt in his eyes.
Years later, while in prison, Piri realized that gangs were, Iike schools and prisons, also "institutions." His determination not to be "institutionalized"2 enabled him to return to the streets possessed of himself and free to reject participation in both criminal activity and street gangs. He wrote of his thoughts as he took his first walk alone down those streets after his parole: "Thoughts walked into each other through my mind -- Everything was yesterday . . . I was a kid yesterday and my whole world was yesterday. I ain't got nothing but today and a whole lot of tomorrows."3
Piri's heroin addiction was also the direct outcome of gang activity. He could not refuse a gang-leader's dare to snort the white stuff on one occasion. Then "snorting" Ied to "skinpopping" which in turn led to "mainlining" he was firmly hooked. Inevitably the economic demands made upon him to maintain his habit pressed him into "dealing."
Fortunately, Piri's own loathing of the person he was becoming as an addict combined with his fear of dying and gave him enough courage to ask a friend named Waneko to help him break his addiction. Waneko was a former addict who had, with the valiant help of his mother, broken the heroin habit "coldturkey." Waneko first satisfied himself that Piri was in fact willing to endure the suffering his freedom would demand. Then he took Piri to his home and introduced him to his mother.
Waneko and his mother had a straight-forward formula for Piri's cure. They simply locked him in the same room which Waneko had earlier devised for his own cure. It contained only a bed and a toilet. The room's only door and a single opening in the exterior wall where a window once was were both covered by iron bars. Once Piri was inside the room he was simply allowed to scream, curse, weep, beg to get out, and test the strength of those iron bars until at last he lay, exhausted and inert in his own sweat, urine, excrement and bile. It had lasted, they told him, for more than seventy hours. Then they bathed him and began to nurse him back to health. It was they, not Piri, who decided when he would be released. That was several days later.
Piri writes: "I left Waneko's house after really thanking them from way down. I hit the streets thinking: 'Wow, dying is easier than this has been. Never - never - nanca mas."4 Their cure had worked, permanently. He never backed away from that resolution.
?Mami porque tu blanca y papi tan?
The major, permeating theme of Down These Mean Streets was Piri Thomas's racial identity struggle. That struggle seemed to be a factor in every other problem he faced, especially during his youth. In this he was not alone. Moreover, even today, it remains a disturbing issue for practically every Puerto Rican who comes to live in New York, or anywhere else in North America. As Fitzpatrick writes:
"Nothing is so complicating to the Puerto Ricans in their efforts to adjust to American life as the problem of color. They represent the first group ever to come to the United States in large numbers with a tradition of widespread intermingling and intermarriage of people of different color ... Any ordinary gathering of Puerto Ricans represents a striking example of the complete acceptance of social intermingling of people of different color and racial characteristics... the sense of identity of the Puerto Ricans on the island never rested on the basis of a person's color. Yet they come to the mainland society in which a person's color plays crucial role in identifying who people are and where they belong "5Norma Carr's note on the contrasting colonial experiences of North America and Puerto Rico helps to place the Nuyoricans' problem of skin pigment in sharper perspective. She points out that in the colonization of North America, the Anglo Saxons "with a few exceptions found nothing sufficiently useful or redeeming about the native peoples of North America to allow amalgamation or genuine coexistence." On the other hand, she notes that, "In contrast, from the beginning of their geographic expansion the Spaniards had married everybody ... and in all their colonies, they incorporated attitudes and traditions of the indigenous peoples, some of which were complementary and some contradictory to their own."6
Interracial mingling also occurred with the Negro slaves who were brought to Puerto Rico by the Spanish to work in their cane fields and sugar mills. Indians and their biracial offsprings worked with the slaves and this encouraged further racial mixing. Thus, by the end of the 16th century, there were virtually no unmixed Tainos, Negroes, or (except for a very small group of the Spanish ruling class) Caucasians in Puerto Rico. The overwhelming majority of the island's population had become jibaro : an interweaving of European, African and Amercaindian strands.7 All of this had occurred without any particular stigma.
It naturally follows that persons who come from racially eclectic Puerto Rico to WASPdominated North America will have difficulty with problems related to the color of their skins. It is a frequently recurring theme in the Nuyoricans' Iiterature about their teen years, especially in poetry.
In her 1975 poem, "The Sounds of Slxth Street " Marita Morales grves this poignant sketch of her teenage self:
"Kids with innocent mindsBetween Two Stichs
and their curiosity aroused
'?Mami, porque tu blanca y papi tan?'
your curiosity aroused you into asking the question your curiosity was wandering
you wondered why all the spanish speaking people are of many different colors
'Chocolate
hey nene
mira
Chocolate
hey mira
ven aca Chocolate'
but he kept on running
and you had no knowledge that wasn't his name . :
but the name of his color
which was Tan or Brown
you did not know
that Puerto Rican people
are a mixture of many different races..."8
When he was a child, Piri Thomas did not know about that polyracial background, either. He did not know why it was that, among the five children in his family, he alone was colored like their father while all of his four siblings were blanco like their mother. He had grown up sadly aware that his father always favored the other children over himself, but he was almost twenty years old before he accurately, but with traumatic consequences, connected that behavior with the fact that life in New York had caused his father to try to reject his own, and consequently his son Piri's, skin color. Actually Piri and his father would not have been called de color, the usual Puerto Rican term for the color of Negro skin pigment. Instead, they would have been called trigueno (wheat color), or in Piri's mother's words, "brown, a nice color, a pretty color."9
Sadly, in North America it didn't make any difference what Piri's mother thought about Piri's complexion, or for that matter, what he thought about it either. When people around him looked at him they saw a Negro; and that was his central problem.
Piri became highly ambivalent about who he was racially during his adolescent years. Sometimes he really felt like a Negro, but he also knew he wasn't one and that was a source of uncommon confusion and outrage on his part. For example, one day when he and some of his Negro friends got into a fight with some paddies (Nuyorican term for white persons), one of them yelled at Piri, "You dirty fucking shine! I'll get one of you black bastards " Piri writes "I screamed back,`Your mammy got fucked by one of us black bastards.' One of us black bastards. Was that me? I wondered."10
Piri described his teenage years as a period of time when he was "hung up, between two sticks."11He explained that "[it] really bugged me when the paddies called us Puerto Rrcans the same names they called our colored aces."12 The major agenda in his life during that period was to find out how to stop being confused about what color he was and, as he put it, "come in on the right stick."13
Brew and the South
Piri's major life agenda was brought to its conclusive, tragic climax by a conversation with his best Negro friend, Brew, who had migrated to the barrio from the rural South. The conversation in question started out with a game of "dozens." That was a tricky word-game played only by very good friends, one of carefully calculated insults:
"Hey, man,' a voice called, 'what yuh doing thar sitting on your rump? Yuh look like you're thinking up a storm.' It was Brew, one of my tightest amigos.Thereupon, Brew immediately challenged Piri to join him in a visit "down south." There, he insisted, Piri would learn that, regardless of how he felt about the issue, the color of his skin marked him as a Negro in the United States: "Hell you ain't but a coupla shades lightern me, and even If yuh was lighter'n that, you'd still be a Negro."15
"'Un poco Brew,` I said. 'How's it going with you?'
"'Cool breeze,' he said.
"I looked at Brew, who was as black as God is supposed to be white. 'Man Brew,' I said, 'you sure an ugly spook.'
"Brew smiled. 'Dig this Negro calling out 'spook,' he said.
"I smiled and said, 'I'm a Porty Rican.'
"'Ah only sees another Negro in fron' of me.' said Brew."14
Piri had previously been told the same thing a number of times by other Blacks with whom he was on a friendly basis. This time he took the challenge and agreed to go. After signing on as Merchant Marines as a way to pay their travel expenses to a southern port town, they broke the news to their friends and to Piri's family.
Divided Selves and a Divided Family
Piri's farewell visit to his family proved to be the occasion on which his relationships with his father and siblings were permanently severed. He arrived home on that fateful day in time to take j a shower and change clothes before his father returned from work. He wanted to make a good impression and gain his family's understanding of his agonizing agenda. But he blew it.
While Piri was in the midst of taking his shower in the family apartment's only bathroom, one of his brothers, Jose, hurried into the cubicle to urinate. Piri writes: "I looked at my brother. Even his peter's white, I thought, just like Jame's. Only ones got black peters is Poppa and me, and Poppa acts like his is white, too."16
Piri attempted to verbalize the thoughts he was having to his family but the results were disastrous. A terrible fist-fight broke out between him and Jose. Poppa broke it up and a spiteful verbal exchange between him and Piri ensued. Other siblings became involved in the fracas and in the end there was a permanent rupture in relations with every member of his family except his mother. Piri was almost overcome with bitterness as he departed that day to begin his j ourney with Brew.
Piri's state of mind seriously deteriorated as he travelled; he was even further embittered by his experiences in the South. There he found, just as he had been told, that his color made him a "nigger." Moreover, he encountered a young man about his own age in a southern town, a mulatto who had apparently come to terms with his biracial status. That highlighted Piri's inability to come to terms with his own identity, severely testing the limits of his sanity.
Piri's next response to his dilemma was an abortive, emotionally explosive attempt to actually become a Negro. He even succeeded in "passing" (Piri's own words) as a "Puerto Rican" to gain entrance into a white brothel. His account of his psychological abuse of the young white girl whose services he purchased there is revelatory of the depths of his own self-hate at that stage in his life. Moreover, it is part of the genius of the writer that at this stage of the book the reader, while sympathizing with young Piri's situation, has come to intensely dislike him.
Racial Ambivalence, in Prison and in El Barrio
Piri's problem with his own racial identity was never completely solved. But while he was in prison it was considerably drained of its venom. While incarcerated, he became able to be addressed as "nigger" with little or no rage. More importantly, he became able to make observations concerning the characters and personalities of the people around him in prison on the basis of their behavior and without regard to their color. He even came to have great respect for the white prison chaplain, a man who stood up for all the prisoners and who once took a beating because he championed a young Black's rightful cause.
However, Piri's ambivalence about his racial identity continued to mark him throughout the record he gives in the autobiographical trilogy. While in prison, he inclined again toward being a Negro and even became a member of the African religion known as the Black Muslims. Then, as he relates in Savior Hold My Hand, after he was out of prison and later established as a writer, he repeated a mistake which his father had made during Piri's own boyhood. He tried, with very sad consequences, to move into and becorne a member of an all-White community. The final pages of Savior Hold My Hand, as we will see later, are tinged with his bitterness regarding this problem.
As related earlier, no issue is more crucial than that of race for Puerto Ricans expatriated to North America; and no writer to date has documented the issue more eloquently than Piri Thomas did in his autobiographical works, particularly in Down These Mean Streets.
An Ethnic Classic
Perhaps the greatest strength of Down These Mean Streets lies in Thomas's handling of his own self-loathing. He has a remarkable capacity to enable the reader first to join him in disliking the mean kid Piri and then to move with him through the pain that leads to ultimate redemption: from violence, from dope addiction, from homosexual activity and from crime.
Piri's accounts of his redemptions are neither proud nor boastful. Each of the accounts is touched with some haunting reminder that he knows he could fall again. For example, near the end of Down These Mean Streets, already in his 30s and with prison apparently safely behind hirn, Piri recorded his thoughts upon retiring on a certain night in his shabby apartment:
"I pushed my way to the window, pulled the light cord and hid from myself in the friendly darkness ... I breathed in the air; it was the same air that I had breathed as a kid, the garbage-filled backyards were the same. Man, everything was the same; only I had changed. I wasn't a grubby-faced Puerto Rican kid any more; I was a grubby faced Puerto Rican man. I am an hombre that wants to be better. ... I felt a wave of loneliness smack over me, almost like getting high. 'Fuck it, fuck it,' I said. The four-letter words sounded strange, dirty,like I shouldn't have been saying them. I said, 'Motherfucker,' and it sounded different, too. It didn't sound like long ago. It sounded not like a challenge thrown at the world but like a cry of helplessness. I pressed my eyes hard into the curve of my elbow. I don 't want to keep on being shit in a cesspool, squishing out through long pipes to hell knows where, I wanna be nice. all the way, for real ..."17Down These Mean Streets, the best of Piri Thomas's works, already occupies a rightful place among other ethnic classics. Fitzpatrick, calling the book the "classic second generation expression," states: "What Manchild in the Promised Land has been to Black youth, Down These Mean Streets has been for Puerto Rican youth."18 Moreover, it richly deserves to be read by anyone, irrespective of racial background, who is interested in gaining new insights into the racial problems which seem to be growing worse and worse in the United States, even as we approach the next century.
Down These Mean Streets establishes all the main themes in Thomas's autobiography. The other two books, to which we now turn our attention, give added detail to those themes and extend them
into his life as a maturing adult.
SEVEN LONG TIMES
Soul-Searching
The other two books of the trilogy. Seven Long Times and Savior, Hold My Hand are Piri Thomas's mature reflections on his tumultuous youth .and on the impact of his youthful experiences upon himself in his manhood years.
Seven Long Times was written in 1974, nineteen years after Piri had been sentenced to ten to fifteen years for shooting an off-duty policeman during an armed robbery attempt and twelve years after his parole from prison. Piri had been gravely wounded during that robbery attempt and spent several weeks in a prison hospital. After he had sufficiently recovered to be able to go into regular prison life, he was passed through a number of detention centers and finally to Comstock where he served seven years of his sentence before being paroled.
The contrast between Piri's perceptions of the meaning of his prison experience as he recounted it in the earlier Down These Mean Streets and then reviewed it in the later Seven Long Times clearly shows the maturity he had achieved during the ensuing years. In Down These Mean Streets he spoke of hate and anger, of total lack of acceptance of his situation:
"One of the worst feelings I can imagine is to be something or someplace and not be able to accept the fact. So it was with me - I was a con in jail, but nothing in he world could make me accept it ... It came to me every morning and every evening and sat heavily, like death on living tisstie. I hated the evenings because a whole night in prison lay before me, and I hated the mornings because I felt like Dracula returning to his coffin...Moreover, in Down These Mean Streets, there was an absence of consciousness on the part of i.Thomas concerning the connection between his crime and his incarceration. "The reasoning that my punishment was deserved was absent. As prison blocks off your body, so it suffocates your mind."21 Never once in that book did he complain that his punishment was undeserved, but at the same time, he never once acknowledged his responsibility in the matter, either.
"I hated the sight of the calendar. I tried not to count the days and weeks and months and years - I found myself counting seconds and minutes ... My life became a gray mass of hatred. I hated sunny days because of the fine times I could have been enj oying at the beach with Trina,19 and I hated rainy days because they were depressing ... I hated the prison noises and the smell of the guards' dark-blue uniforms. I hated the other cons for reminding me that I was one of them, and I hated myself because I was one of them."20
Critiquing Crime and Punishment in the U.S.A.
On the other hand, in Seven Long Times, Piri accepts that responsibility. And he also makes pointed reference to the social situation in which his criminal behavior occurred.
"I committed the crime, I pulled those stickups. I'd stand up to that. But who's going
to stand up and admit it was this country's racial and econornic inequalities that
forced so many of us to the brink of insanity, making our anger and frustration so
great that we literally blew ourselves over the precipice into deep, dark whirlpools
of drugs and crime!"22
;i*i
Another evident mark of Piri's maturity expressed in Seven Long Times lies in the fact that he ;~~'
concurs that his l0-15 year sentence for the attempted armed robbery was just. And in that same
connection, he also agrees that evidence of rehabilitation was a fair requirement for his parole. On ;;
the other hand, he points out, and on the basis of his own frustrations, criticizes the deeply rooted,
systemic, countervailing contradictions within the prison, parole, and economic systems. In his own
case, for example, while he was a prisoner he was taught the trade of brick-1aying to help him have , ::~
a usable skill upon return to regular life beyond the prison walls. But it was useless to him. New York
laws at that time prohibited ex-prisoners from obtaining brick-1ayer's licenses. In addition, the
brick-1ayers' union was strictly all-White.
Appendix I to Seven Long Times, a study of the nation's prisons and parole systems, actually _:~.~~
written some years after the book itself had been completed, details the sadistic, cynical violence, the "' ~
homosexuality and the drugs which pervade America's prisons and render them counterproductive.
Mohr states, regarding that study: "Cit) is a compassionate and intelligent critique of the nation's
prison and parole systems. It would be an excellent basis for a required training program for all , ~.,:";1~.;
prison directors and employees."23
Piri served his seven prison years without getting involved either in the use of addictive drugs or
m homosexual activity. But it is clear that his success in both regards was not due to any positive ,<..=~~'
~+**=***
influence from prison life itself. In the case of drugs, the horrible memories of going cold turkey in ~'~;'.~'.',,~.'~
~i:~i{+;・;~~~,<*・1'*!:r・*~{
~ ~';~.i *~i;~;:i"~'*;;;,'*~*~~~+~~*~~'
* ,',.=~i~*~~~,**~
Waneko's house gave him the inner strength to resist. ~~~;:,::i:~:{"~j{~,~';~~.
Prison Sex
In prison, Piri found that the issue of sex was more acute than that of drugs. Actually, he had }~
had one homosexual encounter while he was in his early teens and it had left him with a strong
abhorrence for the very thought of sex with a man. He was never tempted, only disgusted, by any
advances from homosexuals after that, until he had been in prison for a while. He found that his own
aching need for sexual expression sometimes made it difficult for him to resist the allure of certain
prison "broads."
Paradoxically, it was Piri's hate for every aspect of prison life which evidently helped him
- 34 -